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Landscape ecology is an interdisciplinary field in systems science. The relationships between ecological processes in the environment and ecosystems are studied and improved in landscape ecology. The human impact on landscape structures and functions is investigated in this field. An important principle of landscape ecology is the landscape stability principle, which stresses on the importance of integrity of landscape components in exhibiting resilience to disturbances, promoting total system stability and recovering from disturbances. Some of the vital research areas in this field are land use and land cover change, relating landscape pattern analysis with ecological processes, ecological flows in landscape mosaics, scaling, and landscape conservation and sustainability. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the theories and practices of landscape ecology. It is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex advancements in this field of study. The readers would gain knowledge that would broaden their perspective about landscape ecology.

Palynology is a scientific discipline that involves the study of plant pollen, spores and certain microscopic planktonic organisms, in both living and fossil form. Palynology has several applications in areas such as aerobiology, archaeology, forensic science and crime scene investigation, and allergy studies. Botany makes use of living pollen and spores to study plant relationships and their evolutions. The study of pollen in honey, with the purpose of identifying the source plants used by bees in the production of honey is known as melissopalynology. This study is beneficial to the production of honey as the honey produced by pollen and nectar from certain plants such as mesquite, buckwheat, tupelo or citrus trees is priced higher than that produced by other plant sources. It also studies the plants that produce nectar and pollen that is dangerous to human health. This book is compiled in such a manner that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the theory and practice of palynology. It is an essential guide for both botanists and students who wish to pursue this discipline further.

Contagious and infectious diseases are those diseases of livestock that are caused by pathogens, such as fungi, bacteria and viruses. They can be transmitted from one animal to another, and can also spread from insects and vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks, midges, and flies. Some infectious diseases may also occur due to the consumption of contaminated water or feed, or exposure to micro-organisms in the environment. Some of the common infectious diseases in livestock include foot and mouth disease, blue tongue, black quarter, pox, Johne`s disease, bovine rhinotracheitis, and theileriosis. The measures to prevent infectious diseases in animals are divided into three categories, which include animal husbandry, biosecurity, and vaccinations. The adoption of good practices of animal husbandry involve providing clean water, clean housing, good quality feed, and isolating the sick animal. This book aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of contagious and infectious diseases of livestock and the recent researches on them. Those with an interest in these diseases would find it helpful.

Sustainability refers to the use of goods and resources in such a way that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their needs. The ability of individuals within a geographical area to afford, access and source the required amount of food is known as food security. A sustainable food system refers to a type of food system that can fulfill the nutritional and food requirements of all people in a sustainable manner. Sustainability and food security are essential for reducing the effects of climate change while meeting the increasing demand for food in the world. The four pillars of food security are availability, access, usage and stability. Major issues affecting food security and sustainability include poverty, population, change in climatic conditions, inadequate distribution of food, and unmonitored nutrition programs. This book is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex global issues and challenges related to food security and sustainability. It will help the readers in keeping pace with the rapid changes in this area of study.

Zoonotic diseases are the infectious diseases in humans, which are transmitted from animals to humans. They can be caused due to infectious agents such as prion, bacteria, parasites, or viruses. Zoonotic diseases can be transmitted directly from animal hosts to humans by media such as air or through saliva or bite of the host. The indirect transmission of zoonotic diseases occurs through transmission by intermediate species or vectors, which may carry the pathogen. The genetics of the host plays a significant role in determining which animal viruses have the capability to replicate themselves in humans. Those animal viruses which require less number of mutations for replicating themselves in the human cells are considered to be more dangerous. This book provides significant information to help develop a good understanding of zoonotic diseases. Also included herein is a detailed explanation of the hosts and vectors associated with zoonotic diseases. This book will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers studying these diseases.

Grains refer to the harvested seeds of grasses, including oats, corn, wheat and rice. Some other significant grains include millet, barley, sorghum and rye. All grains are rich in complex carbohydrates as well as certain essential minerals and vitamins. They are classified into three types, which include enriched grains, whole grains and refined grains. Whole grains contain high fibers and have been associated with health advantages such as a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and colorectal cancer. Grains are processed industrially to prepare and manufacture food items such as pasta, oatmeal, pastries, crackers, breads, chips, breakfast cereals, tortillas and cookies. Furthermore, grains are also utilized to make sweeteners like rice syrup and high fructose corn syrup, which are commonly found in packaged foods. This book elucidates the properties, processing, and nutritional content of grains. It strives to provide a fair idea about this area of study and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances within it. Researchers and students engaged in the study of grains will be assisted by this book.

Consumer preference refers to the subjective tastes of consumers and it is determined by how satisfied they are with the food products after making a purchase. Factors such as packaging, price and convenience determine consumer acceptance of food products. In food industry, one important factor that requires careful consideration is the sensory experience of the consumers with the food. Sensory testing evaluates food products using the senses of touch, sight, taste, and smell. It is frequently utilized to ascertain whether a food product would be accepted by consumers or not. The factors which influence food acceptability may be related to the environment, the food or the person consuming it. This book unravels the recent studies on consumer preferences in the food industry. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. This book is a vital tool for all researching and studying this field.

Food packaging is an important activity for restaurants, hotels and other food-related businesses. This industry is also evolving and transitioning from manufacturing of plastic based packaging to antimicrobial, biodegradable, edible, and biopolymer film packaging. Antimicrobial polymers refer to those materials that can stop or kill the growth of microorganisms in their immediate environment or on their surface. Antimicrobial polymers are appropriate for usage in the food industry for preventing bacterial contamination. This is achieved by the inactivation of microorganisms on contact or expanding their lag phase. Antimicrobial packaging significantly affects food safety and extends the shelf life of food by decreasing the growth rate of the microorganisms. They are typically made up of an antimicrobial agent and a polymer matrix, modified intentionally to provide antimicrobial properties. Apart from food packaging, these polymers also have applications in personal hygiene and medicine. This book contains some path-breaking studies related to the use of antimicrobial materials and technologies for food packaging. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and postgraduate students.

Biogenic amines (BAs) are organic and nitrogenous compounds found in certain fermented foods, such as sausage, wine, cheese, fish and fermented vegetables. They are involved in controlling various functions of the brain such as emotions, blood pressure, movements, endocrine secretion, behavior and temperature. Bacterial decarboxylation of the amino acids in food leads to the production of BAs. The consumption of large amounts of BAs in food can have toxic effects and may also lead to gastrointestinal, neurological, respiratory and cardiovascular issues, as well as hypertensive, psychotropic and vasoactive effects. The regulation of decarboxylase activity of amino acids can help in controlling the concentrations of BAs in food items. Their levels can be decreased through various techniques including hydrostatic pressure, smoking, temperature, packing, irradiation, starter culture, oxidizing formed biogenic amine, additives, and pasteurization. This book explores all the important aspects of biogenic amines, including their occurrence and toxic effects in the present day scenario. It will also provide interesting topics for research, which interested readers can take up. This book is a resource guide for experts as well as students.

A wind turbine converts wind energy into electricity by utilizing the aerodynamic force of the rotor blades. The blades of the wind turbines are developed by using the aerofoil structure, which is also frequently utilized in the construction of airplane wings. There are many distinct varieties of wind turbines, and each one generates electrical energy using a unique idea. Lift and drag are the two significant aerodynamic forces utilized by wind turbines. The wind turbines which use drag forces contain a vertical rotor and are based on the concept of air resistance. The lift propelled wind turbines contain blades which are positioned perpendicular to the wind direction. The maximum speed of air resistance wind turbines cannot be greater than the speed of wind but lift propelled wind turbines can rotate faster than the speed of the wind. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to wind turbines and their aerodynamics. It is a resource guide for experts as well as students.

Water resources are sources of water, such as groundwater, rivers, springs, streams, reservoirs and lakes that are beneficial for human beings. The variability of these water resources is affected by climate change, which results in shifts in weather and temperature patterns. The rise in temperature has an impact on the hydrological cycle, as it increases the rate of evaporation of the surface water along with vegetation transpiration. The primary effects of climate change on water resources are an increase in the frequency of droughts and floods, increased temperature, decreasing snow cover and wildfires. As a result, it affects the water storage in the sub-surface and surface reservoirs. The building of resilient societies and ecosystems involves dealing with the present challenges of water crisis and climate change by adopting sustainable water management strategies. This book unfolds the impact of climate change on water resources. It consists of contributions made by international experts. This book is meant for students who are looking for an elaborate reference text on the challenges and solutions related to an imminent water crisis.

Marine biotechnology refers to the use of biotechnology tools on marine resources. It utilizes resources from aquatic living organisms to create new commercially viable applications or products. Marine biotechnology has demonstrated its potential in a wide range of applications from biomedicine to the environment. Commercial applications of marine biotechnology include enhancing the production of marine organisms, bio-prospecting, creation of new products, as well as developing biosensors and diagnostics. The goal of current marine biotechnology research is to develop new methods and tools that will improve the economically and environmentally viable industrial production of compounds derived from marine sources. This book unfolds the current research in marine biotechnology, which will be crucial for the progress of this field in the future. Most of the topics introduced herein cover new techniques and the applications of this area of biotechnology. The book aims to serve as a resource guide for students and experts alike and contribute to the growth of the discipline.

Groundwater refers to the fresh water that seeps into the soil. It is stored in the minuscule spaces between soil particles and rocks known as aquifers. Entry of substances such as road salts, gasoline, chemicals and oil in the groundwater leads to groundwater contamination. Contaminated groundwater is hazardous for human consumption. Other possible sources of groundwater contamination include uncontrolled hazardous waste, atmospheric contaminants, landfills and septic systems. Groundwater remediation is the process of treating polluted groundwater by either eliminating the contaminants or transforming them into harmless products. Abiotic redaction, chemical precipitation, biotic reduction, and adsorption and ion exchange are the four biological, chemical, and physical uptake mechanisms used in the remediation of contaminated groundwater. This book is a compilation of chapters that discuss the most vital concepts and emerging trends in the analysis and remediation of groundwater contamination. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and postgraduate students.

A forest is a terrain or landmass that is pre-dominantly occupied by trees giving rise to a green cover. They are diverse biological systems that represent rich biological regions on the Earth. They provide a wide range of habitats for microorganisms, animals and plants. Additionally, forests are also a source of food, clean water, fuel for heating and cooking, wildlife habitat, and medicinal plants. However, they are slowly becoming endangered due to human activities. The practice of planting and maintaining forests for the benefit of the present and future generations is known as forest conservation. The branch of forestry which is involved in the planning and implementation of practices related to the administration of forests is known as forest management. It seeks to meet specific economic, environmental, social and cultural goals. This book contains some path-breaking studies in the field of forest conservation and management. Researchers and students in this field will be assisted by it.

Forests refer to areas that contain a large number of trees. They are classified into three main types, including boreal, temperate and tropical. Forests exhibit a high level of biodiversity and have the most diverse ecosystems on land, as they are home to a large number of the terrestrial species found in the world. Forest biodiversity is inherently linked to the ecosystem and human well-being, and it is important from a number of socio-economic aspects as well as. It also provides a variety of goods and services including timber and non-timber forest resources, reduces the effects of climate change, and helps conserve genetic resources. Forest management refers to the process of protecting and maintaining a forested area. It encompasses the administrative, economic, legal and social aspects. This book unravels the recent studies related to forest biodiversity, ecology and management. It is a resource guide for experts as well as students.

Alternative energy refers to a type of energy that is derived from sources other than fossil fuels. This energy emits little to no greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane. The energy generated from alternative sources does not lead to the greenhouse effect that is responsible for climate change. There are various types of alternative energy sources including wind power, hydroelectricity, tidal power, solar power, biomass, nuclear power and geothermal power. The carbon footprint of alternative energy sources is far less as compared to coal, natural gas and other fossil fuels. Alternative energy sources can be adopted at a broad level if renewable technologies become more effective and necessary reforms are made in the electric utility sector. This book includes some of the vital pieces of works being conducted across the world, on various topics related to alternative energy. It elucidates new techniques and their applications in a multidisciplinary manner. This book is a vital tool for all researching or studying alternative energy sources as it gives incredible insights into emerging trends and concepts.

Renewable energy is the type of energy that is derived from renewable sources of energy. Hydro energy, geothermal energy, solar energy, biomass energy, wind energy, and tidal energy are some of the most popular renewable energy sources. Remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) technologies are widely used in the field of renewable energy. One of the most important steps in developing high-penetration renewable energy systems is evaluating the potential of renewable energy sources. A variety of tools and techniques can be utilized to accomplish this, including on-site remote sensing tools, in situ observations, reanalysis datasets, and satellite image data. The techniques based on remote sensing and GIS are beneficial in finding out optimum locations of renewable energy resources for developing renewable energy infrastructure. This book is a compilation of chapters that discuss the most vital concepts and emerging trends in the use of geographic information systems and remote sensing techniques for renewable energy. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area of study as well as for experts.

A solar cell refers to a type of device that transforms light into electrical energy by directly using the photovoltaic effect technology. Majority of the solar cells are made using silicon, which is the most common semiconductor material. Solar cells are usually made from n-type and p-type silicon semiconductors. The cells can be organized as arrays, which are made up of thousands of individual cells. These arrays can serve as an electric power plant, which generates electrical energy using sunlight for distribution in residential, industrial and commercial areas. Solar cell panels are also utilized to generate electricity in numerous distant terrestrial regions, where conventional electric power sources are either unavailable or impractical to install. Solar cells are used frequently in power consumer devices such as portable radios, electronic toys and pocket calculators. This book unfolds the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to solar cells materials and device technology. It is a resource guide for experts as well as students.

Hydroinformatics is a subfield of informatics that focuses on the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) to address the major issues related to the effective and equitable use of water for a variety of purposes. Hydrodynamics is a branch of physics, which is engaged in the study of the motion of fluids as well as the forces acting on the solid bodies submerged in fluids. Hydraulics refers to a type of technology that involves the utilization of liquids and their mechanical properties. It is an applied science based on chemistry, engineering, and other sciences. Concepts from the fields of environmental engineering, hydraulics, and hydrology along with other disciplines are integrated into hydroinformatics. This book unravels the recent studies in the fields of hydraulics, hydrodynamics, and hydroinformatics. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and post graduate students. It strives to provide a fair idea about this discipline and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances within this field.

Disasters refer to severe disruptions that affect the functioning of a community, to an extent which is beyond its coping capacity using its own resources. Technical, natural, and man-made risks, along with a number of other factors make a community vulnerable and exposed to disasters. Remote sensing is a technique of gathering data about the Earth through the use of satellites and drones. Remote sensing data is helpful in monitoring, predicting, and managing disasters. Satellites contain sensors that are capable of taking measurements at regular intervals and at different wavelengths. All the data collected by these sensors can be used for disaster monitoring. It can also be utilized to estimate the rate of recovery in disaster-affected regions, based on signs such as reconstruction, vegetation regrowth, and debris removal. The topics covered in this extensive book deal with the application of remote sensing technologies for monitoring and prediction of disasters. It will provide comprehensive knowledge to the readers.

Water and wastewater treatment involves the use of one or more physical, chemical and biological processes or their combination for removing solids and organic matter from the wastewater. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are a set of chemical treatment procedures designed for effectively removing organic pollutants from water and wastewater by the process of oxidation. This emerging chemical technology is based on the in-situ generation of hydroxyl radicals, which are used as strong oxidants that can be used to oxidize a wide range of chemical compounds. In some AOPs, sulphate radicals, ozone, catalyst, or ultraviolet irradiation is also used to achieve more efficient treatment. AOP is beneficial for cleaning biologically toxic or non-degradable materials such as aromatics, pesticides, petroleum constituents, and volatile organic compounds dissolved in the wastewater. A major advantage of using AOPs for wastewater treatment is that these processes do not introduce any new hazardous substances into the water since the complete reduction product of hydroxyl radicals is water. One drawback of AOPs that limit its large-scale application and industrial usage relates to high costs. This book unravels the recent studies on water and wastewater treatment using the advanced oxidation process. Researchers and students in this field will be greatly assisted by it.

Fertilizers are chemical substances that are applied to the soil for supplying essential nutrients required by plants. They are used as a part of nutrient management practice for enhancing the agricultural productivity or crop yield. Fertilizers can be classified into two categories, namely, organic fertilizers and inorganic fertilizers. Organic fertilizers are natural fertilizers derived from plants and animals. They have various benefits such as promoting the reproduction of microorganisms, enriching the soil with carbonic compounds, altering the physical and chemical properties of soil, and increasing the content of organic matter in the soil. Inorganic fertilizers are chemical-based fertilizers used for providing nutrients for the development of crops. These can be further classified into nitrogen fertilizers and phosphorous fertilizers. Although fertilizers are beneficial for soil and productivity, excessive application of fertilizers may also lead to soil fertility degradation. This book includes some of the vital pieces of works being conducted across the world on various topics related to fertilizers, crop yield and nutrient management. This book will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

Wheat and barley both are important domesticated crops which belong to the grass family. Barley is a significant source of dietary fiber whereas wheat is a significant source of carbohydrates. Wheat is used to make biscuits, pasta, cookies, bread, noodles, crackers, bulgur and various other products. It is also used to manufacture animal feed and beverages. Barley is primarily utilized to make beer and other alcoholic beverages. It is also widely used as livestock feed. Wheat and barley genetics have undergone a revolutionary change with advancement in genomics. Marker-assisted selection (MAS), marker-assisted backcrossing (MABC) and pyramiding of genetic factors influencing important traits have accelerated the discovery and use of rare allelic variants in traditional breeding schemes. This book provides significant information on the molecular approaches to improvements in wheat and barley. It will also provide interesting topics for research, which interested readers can take up. This book, with its detailed analyses and data, will prove immensely beneficial to professionals and students involved in this area at various levels.

A catchment refers to an area of land commonly surrounded by hills or mountains in which the water flows and gets collected. Catchment management is a sustainable and potentially low-carbon impact method of altering the quality of raw water at its source by managing land use practices on a catchment scale. It can also aid in the enhancement of resilience and the reduction of flood risk. Rivers supply water for power generation, irrigation, industry, domestic use and for a variety of other ecosystem services, and intrinsic and biodiversity benefits. River basin refers to an area of land which is drained by a river and its tributaries. It is considered to be the basic hydrological unit for managing water resources. Challenges related to sustainable water management on a river basin scale include changes in land use, increasing water usage and climate change. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to catchment and river basin management. It will also provide interesting topics for research, which interested readers can take up. A number of latest researches have been included to keep the readers up-to-date with the global concepts in this area of study.

Sensors are small devices that are used to measure or detect natural Earth conditions such as motion, heat, or light, and represent this in analog or digital form. In the agricultural sector, sensors are used in drones, weather stations and robots. Data collected by these sensors is used for monitoring and optimizing crops and protecting the crops from adverse impacts of the environment. Optical sensors are agricultural sensors that involve the use of various frequencies of light to measure the properties of soil. It can determine organic matter in the soil, soil moisture and clay content in soil. Electrochemical sensors are used to gather information about chemical data of soil for detecting the nutrients present in the soil. This book provides a detailed explanation of the applications of sensing technology in agriculture. A number of latest researches have been included to keep the readers updated with the global concepts in this area of study. The book aims to equip students and experts with the advanced topics and upcoming concepts in this area of agricultural technology.

Orchid is a large family of flowering plants, which belong to genus Orchidaceae. Orchid plants produce complex flowers having a large specialized lip (labellum). Most of the orchids are perennial. They are found in terrestrial and epiphytic habitats. Orchid phytochemistry refers to the study of phytochemicals or the chemicals derived from orchid plants. Some of the common phytochemicals detected in orchids are alkaloids, phenols, flavonoids, tannins and proteins. Orchid research focused on the biology of orchids involves the cellular and molecular processes of orchid plants such as pigment and floral scent formation, pollination, bioactive compounds, and plant-microbe interactions in orchid species. This book includes some of the vital pieces of works being conducted across the world, on various topics related to orchids. Its extensive content provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the phytochemistry and biology of orchids. The book will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers studying this family of flowering plants.

Plants are exposed to a number of biotic and abiotic stresses. Soil salinity is one of the major abiotic stresses, which negatively affects plant growth and crop production. Stress due to salinity leads to various changes in the physiological and metabolic processes based on the severity and duration of the stress. In the initial stages, soil salinity leads to osmotic stress, which causes physiological changes such as nutrient imbalance, interruption of membranes, decreased photosynthetic activity, and inhibition of the ability to detoxify the reactive oxygen species. In the later stage, soil salinity leads to ionic toxicity that leads to nutrient imbalance in the cytosol. In order to overcome salinity stress, plants have developed several mechanisms such as ion homeostasis and compartmentalization, ion transport and uptake, generation of nitric oxide (NO), and synthesis of polyamines. This book includes some of the vital pieces of works being conducted across the world on various topics related to plant salinity tolerance. It will help the readers in keeping pace with the rapid changes in this area of study.

Remote sensing is the process of detecting and monitoring the physical characteristics of an area by measuring its reflected and emitted radiation at a distance from a satellite, drone or aircraft. It is used in several fields including photography, geology, and surveying. Remote sensing plays an instrumental role in the field of crop production and management. It is used extensively for forecasting crop production, assessing crop damage and crop progress, identifying pests and disease infestation, soil mapping, monitoring and managing irrigation, and collecting past and current weather data. Crop intensification is another important application of remote sensing that involves collecting important data related to crops including crop rotation needs, cropping pattern, and crop diversity over a given piece of land. The remote sensing data can also be used in crop models, which show the relationships among plant, water and soil. Such models help reveal water stress and its effects on crop growth and development. This book is a detailed explanation of the various applications of remote sensing in crop plants. It is a vital tool for all researching or studying the role of remote sensing in crop production as it gives incredible insights into emerging modeling methods and applications.

Food technology refers to a subfield of food science that deals with the invention, production, preservation and quality control of food products. It uses modern technologies to create and enhance the food production and distribution systems. It is categorized into agricultural technology, food science and food delivery. Agricultural technology refers to the application of technology within the field of agriculture in order to improve efficiency, yield and profitability. Technological solutions within this field can be in the form of software solutions, sensors, satellite imagery and agriculture machines. Agricultural technology can be in the form of products, services or applications which have been derived from agriculture. This book unfolds the innovative aspects of modern production technology in food and agriculture. It elucidates new techniques and their applications in a multidisciplinary manner. This book is a resource guide for experts as well as students.