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Petroleum is a substance that occurs naturally in a yellowish-black form. It is found in a liquid form in the geological formations underneath the Earth's surface. It includes all solid, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons as well as crude oil. Under surface temperature and pressure, pentane and other heavier hydrocarbons exist in solid and liquid forms. Under the same conditions the lighter hydrocarbons such as methane, propane, ethane and butane exist in gaseous forms. Petroleum is a fossil fuel that is obtained from the ancient fossilized organic materials such as zooplankton and algae. Petroleum formation is the result of the hydrocarbon pyrolysis at high temperature and pressure in a number of endothermic reactions. Alkenes, asphalt, lubricants, aromatic petrochemicals and paraffin wax are a few of the useful products derived from the mixture of hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbons. The excessive use of petroleum as a fuel is a threat to the environment. It is a major cause of global warming and ocean acidification. This book contains some path-breaking studies in the field of petroleum science and technology. Most of the topics introduced herein cover new techniques and the applications of this field. It will help the readers in keeping pace with the rapid changes in this area.

Any system with sub-units linked into a whole is known as a network. A biological network is a network of biological systems. It provides a mathematical representation of the connections between ecological, evolutionary and physiological studies. The prominent networks in biology are metabolic networks, food webs and gene regulatory networks. Biochemical reactions connect the chemical compounds of a living cell and convert one compound into another. This biochemical network of reactions is known as metabolic network. All organisms are connected to each other through feeding interactions and form an intricate web which is known as food web. All cells have complex gene regulatory networks in which the gene activity is regulated by transcription factors. The topics included in this book on biological networks are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. It strives to provide a fair idea about this discipline and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances within this field. For all readers who are interested in biological networks, the case studies included in this book will serve as an excellent guide to develop a comprehensive understanding.

The scientific study of human and non-human movement is known as kinesiology. It encompasses the physiological, psychological and biochemical dynamic principles and mechanisms of movement. The branch of kinesiology which deals with the human health is known as human kinesiology. It studies biomechanics and orthopedics, sports psychology, and strength and conditioning. Human kinesiology also includes methods of rehabilitation such as physical and occupational therapy, and sports and exercise. Sports science is a field that observes the functioning of a healthy body during exercise. It studies how physical activities such as sports promote the health and performance of the whole body. It encompasses various areas such as biokinetics, biomechanics and anatomy. This book discusses the fundamentals as well as modern approaches to kinesiology and sports science. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

The power systems that are designed to supply usable solar power using photovoltaics are referred to as photovoltaic systems. There are various types of modern photovoltaic systems such as grid-connected photovoltaic systems, stand-alone photovoltaic systems, building integrated systems, rack-mounted systems, residential and utility systems, roof-top and ground-mounted systems and many more. The photovoltaic system is made up of an arrangement of various components. It uses solar panels to absorb the sunlight and convert it into electricity. It also uses a solar inverter to convert DC into AC, as well as other electrical accessories such as mounting and cabling to set up a working system. Photovoltaic systems use a solar tracking system to improve the overall performance of the system. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to photovoltaic systems. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

The sub-field of biology concerned with the in-depth study of evolutionary processes is known as evolutionary biology. These processes are responsible for the diversity of life on this planet. Speciation, natural selection and common descent are some common evolutionary processes. Diverse topics and ideas are incorporated in the current research in evolutionary biology such as computer science and molecular genetics. The research has further widened to cover the genetic architecture of adaptation, molecular evolution, and the different forces that contribute to evolution such as biogeography, sexual selection and genetic drift. This book brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of evolutionary biology. It is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex advancements in the field of evolutionary biology. This book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.

Agriculture is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Various foods, fuels, fibers and raw materials are cultivated. Modern agriculture relies on intensive farming practices. Conventional agricultural practices can have a negative impact on the environment. This has led to an increased emphasis on regenerative, organic and sustainable agriculture. Alternative technologies of agriculture comprising of selective breeding, integrated pest management and controlled-environment agriculture are being actively researched and studied. Sustained agricultural productivity is vital to food security. There are numerous risk factors which can affect food security such as droughts, fuel shortages, economic instability, etc. This book contains some path-breaking studies in the field of agricultural science. The topics covered herein deal with the core aspects of agriculture. It is a vital tool for all researching or studying this field as it gives incredible insights into emerging trends and concepts.

The monitoring of the components of the hydrological cycle is known as hydrometry. It includes rainfall, groundwater characteristics, water quality and flow characteristics of surface waters. Hydrometrics is a field of applied science and engineering that deals with hydrometry. It primarily measures the components of the hydrological cycle such as the bulk quantification of water resources. Hydrology, structures, control systems, computer sciences, data management and communications are various traditional engineering practices that fall under this domain. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the theory and practice of hydrometry. It includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to hydrometry. This book, with its detailed analyses and data, will prove immensely beneficial to professionals and students involved in this area at various levels.

The biological, radiological, chemical and physical traits of water are known as water quality. It is a measure of the water condition related to the requirements of biotic species and to human need. The health of ecosystems, safety of human contact, and drinking water are the most common standards used to measure water quality. Water quality parameters can be categorized into human consumption, environmental water quality, and industrial and domestic use. The measurement of water quality includes the process of sample collection, chemical analysis, real-time monitoring and testing in response to natural disasters. Various environmental indicators such as physical, chemical and biological indicators are also observed and used for the monitoring of water quality. This book explores all the important aspects of water quality in the present day scenario. It elucidates new techniques and their applications in a multidisciplinary manner. It will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers in this field.

Agricultural marketing deals with the services involved in the movement of agricultural products from the farm to the consumer. It is concerned with the planning, organizing, directing and handling of agricultural products to satisfy the farmer, producer and consumer. Agricultural marketing consists of various activities and services such as production planning, growing, harvesting, grading and packing as well as transporting, storage, food-processing and distribution of the products. It also includes the advertising and sale of agricultural produce. It provides market information to help direct these services. Modern agricultural marketing focuses on developing new marketing links between agribusiness, large retailers and farmers, through contract farming, group marketing and other collective actions. This book provides comprehensive insights into the field of agricultural marketing. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. It will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

Ecohydrology is concerned with the study of interactions between water and ecological systems. It is an interdisciplinary scientific field and a sub-discipline of hydrology that focuses on the ecological aspects. The interactions between water and ecological systems occur within the water bodies, like lakes and rivers. Such interactions can also occur on land, such as in forests, deserts and other terrestrial ecosystems. Ecohydrology focuses on different areas including, transpiration and plant water use, effects of vegetation and benthic plants on stream flow and adaptation of organisms to their water environment. Ecohydrology studies both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Its main focus in terrestrial ecosystems is on the interaction among vegetation, the vadose zone, land surface and the groundwater. In aquatic ecosystems it emphasizes on the effects of geomorphology, water chemistry and hydrology on the structure and function of the ecosystem. This book unravels the recent studies in the field of ecohydrology. Some of the diverse topics covered in this book address the varied branches that fall under this category. It will provide comprehensive knowledge to the readers.

The scientific study of movement, distribution and quality of water on Earth and other planets is known as hydrology. It includes the study of the water cycle and water resources as well as environmental watershed sustainability. Hydrology draws on various fields such as environmental science, physical geography, environmental engineering and geology. Various scientific techniques and analytical methods are used in engineering hydrology. It works to solve water-related problems such as natural disasters, water management and environmental preservation. Remote sensing of hydrological processes is used to measure various constituents of terrestrial water balance, such as soil moisture, precipitation, surface water storage, evapotranspiration and snow and ice. The sources of remote sensing are land-based, remote-based and satellite sensors that are capable of capturing microwave, thermal and near-infrared data. The hydrological models are conceptual representations of a part of the hydrological cycle. It is classified into two types such as models based on data and models based on process descriptions. This book contains some path-breaking studies in the field of engineering hydrology. The various studies that are constantly contributing towards advancing technologies and evolution of this field are examined in detail. For someone with an interest and eye for detail, this book covers the most significant topics in the field of engineering hydrology.

Chinese medicine is an ancient medical practice which includes various forms of therapies including acupuncture, massage, dietary therapy, herbal medicine and exercise. It primarily focuses on the functions of the body like breathing, temperature maintenance and digestion. Chinese medicine is generally used as an alternative medicine approach and its philosophy is based on yinyangism. The diagnosis in Chinese medicine is majorly based on the methods of inspection, olfaction, inquiry, auscultation and palpation. Face, tongue, body odor, and other symptoms such as chills, fever, perspiration, taste, pain, sleep and menses, all are examined for diagnosis. The topics included in this book on Chinese medicine are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. This book will also provide interesting topics for research which interested readers can take up. It will help the readers in keeping pace with the rapid changes in this field.

Livestock refers to the domesticated animals in an agricultural setting which are raised by humans to produce commodities such as leather, fur, dairy products, wool, etc. Some common examples of livestock are cows, goats, sheep, buffaloes and pigs. The field which involves breeding, maintenance and slaughtering of livestock is known as animal husbandry. It is one of the major components of modern agriculture. There are many diseases and health issues that affect the livestock such as classical swine fever, scrapie, foot mouth disease, etc. Many measures are taken to avoid such diseases. Vaccines and antibiotics are widely used when required. Good husbandry practices, proper feeding, and hygiene are incorporated which contribute to good livestock health. This book unravels the recent studies in the field of modern livestock and animal health. Different approaches, evaluations, methodologies and advanced studies on modern livestock and animal health have been included in this book. It will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

The basic unit of study in agroecology is known as an agroecosystem. It is defined as a functionally and spatially coherent unit of agricultural activity. It comprises of both the living as well as the nonliving components which are involved in that unit, along with their interactions. An agroecosystem can be considered as a subset of a conventional ecosystem, with the human activity of agriculture at its core. The region around the agricultural activity, which is impacted by this activity, is also included in the agroecosystem. The farming methods which are employed currently have resulted in over-stretched water resources, high levels of erosion and reduced soil fertility. Farming within agroecosystems has been suggested as the way forward for mainstream agriculture. This book aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of agroecosystems by examining it through the perspective of ecology. It also includes contributions of experts and scientists which will provide innovative insights into this field. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book

Physical education is related to maintaining the human body through physical exercises. It is very important for student's health and overall well-being as it encourages psychomotor learning in a play or movement exploration setting to promote health. The technologies that are used in physical education are video projectors, GPS, games and gaming systems. It focuses on developing good activity habits through team sports such as football, basketball, etc. Yoga is also being included in the modern practice as a stress reduction technique. All of these activities enhance the muscular strength and cardiovascular endurance of individuals. This book is a compilation of chapters that discuss the most vital concepts and emerging trends in the field of physical education. It strives to provide a fair idea about this discipline and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances within this field. This book will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

Geoscience is the discipline concerned with all the fields of natural science that are related to planet Earth. It studies the constitution of the Earth and its atmosphere. Geoscience, also known as Earth science, studies the physical characteristics and processes of the Earth such as earthquakes, rain, flood, fossils, etc. It is classified into four main branches of study, which are the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. It is the study of Earth as well as its neighbours in space. It focuses on locating or developing mineral and energy resources available on or in the Earth. It analyzes the impacts of human activities on the Earth's environment and makes strategies to protect the planet. Tools from other fields such as chemistry, biology, physics, mathematics, geography, etc., are used in geoscience to understand the Earth's working and evolution. It also focuses on predicting the natural disasters like earthquakes, floods or volcanoes. This book contains some path-breaking studies in the field of geoscience. It provides significant information of this discipline and helps in developing a good understanding of it and related fields. This book will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and post graduate students.

Cattle are the large domesticated animals that are primarily raised as livestock for meat, milk and leather. Cattle health is looked after under the field of animal welfare. It includes the observation of both mental and physical state of the cattle. It is ensured that the animals are safe, healthy, and are expressing their innate behavior. Cattle can develop and catch various serious diseases such as bluetongue, foot rot and blackleg. These diseases are studied under the veterinary discipline known as buiatrics. Disease prevention, nutrition, appropriate shelter and veterinary treatment are a few of the major concerns that are associated with cattle health. The topics included in this book on cattle health are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. It provides comprehensive insights into the field of preventive care and disease management for cattle. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and post graduate students.

The study of Earth's atmosphere is known as atmospheric science. It deals with the study of Earth's atmospheric processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere and vice versa. Meteorology is the branch of atmospheric science which involves atmospheric physics and chemistry with a focus on weather forecasting. The study of atmospheric changes is known as climatology. It involves the study of atmospheric changes which are both long-term and short-term. It also defines average climate and their changes over time due to both natural and anthropogenic climate variability. The study of upper layers of atmosphere where dissociation and ionization are important, fall under aeronomy. Rocketsondes, radiosondes, satellites, lasers and weather balloons are some of the experimental instruments used in atmospheric science. This book contains some path-breaking studies in the field of atmospheric science. The aim of this book is to present researches that have transformed this discipline and aided its advancement. As this field is emerging at a rapid pace, the contents of this book will help the readers understand the modern concepts and applications of the subject.

The biosphere, which is also known as the ecosphere, is the global sum of all ecosystems. It can also be characterized as the closed system on earth which is the zone of life, and a system which is largely self-regulating. Earth's biosphere is an ecological system that integrates all living beings and their relationships. It also includes their interactions with the elements of the lithosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. The biosphere is divided into a variety of biomes on the basis of latitudes. All biomes are inhabited by diverse species of flora and fauna. This book unravels the recent studies on the Earth's biosphere. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. This book aims to equip students and experts with the advanced topics and upcoming concepts in this area.

Renewable energy is a form of energy that is derived from renewable resources. These are naturally replenished on human time scales. Some common forms of renewable energy include wind, rain, sunlight tides, geothermal heat and waves. Electricity generation, rural energy services and transportation are some important areas where renewable energy is utilized. The most common types of renewable energy are solar energy, hydropower and wind energy. Solar energy is a radiant light and heat from the sun which is utilized for future use using a range of technologies such as solar heating, solar thermal energy, photovoltaics, solar architecture, etc. Hydropower is the power which is derived from falling water or fast running water. It is later utilized for useful purposes such as irrigation, and operation of various mechanical devices like gristmills, sawmills and textile mills. Wind energy on the other hand uses airflow with the help of wind turbine which helps in generating mechanical power to turn electric generators. It may also be applied to other areas like milling or pumping. This book contains some path-breaking studies in the field of renewable energy. The topics included in this book on renewable energy are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. Researchers and students in this field will be assisted by this book.

Climate change is a phenomenon that takes place due to the changes in Earth's climate system. It occurs when new weather patterns are formed in earth's climate that last for few decades or maybe for millions of years. There are five interacting parts that constitute in climate change, the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, lithosphere and cryosphere. Earth's energy budget is determined by the balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy via climate system. The factors that affect climate changes are cyclical ocean patterns, external forcing, human activities, etc. The actions that are used to limit the magnitude of long term global warming and its related affects fall under climate change mitigation. It is concerned with the reduction of greenhouse gases caused by human emissions. This book provides comprehensive insights into the field of climate change. It also unravels the recent studies in the field of climate change, its challenges and solutions. This book is a vital tool for all researching and studying this field.

Bioengineering refers to the application of engineering in the fields of biology and medicine. It develops on the principles of varied fields such as biomechanics, fluid mechanics, heat transfer, thermodynamics, bioinformatics, etc. A number of life-saving and life-enhancing technologies have been developed owing to research in bioengineering. These include prosthetics such as artificial limb replacements and dentures, implanted devices, medical imaging techniques, surgical devices and systems, radiation therapy, therapeutic devices and equipment, etc. While medical electronics and medical instrumentation continue to be areas of interest, biomechanics, biological modeling, biomaterials and blood-flow dynamics are other areas of focus in bioengineering. This book outlines the concepts and applied principles of bioengineering in detail. It unravels the recent studies in this field. This book is a vital tool for all researching or studying bioengineering as it gives incredible insights into emerging trends and concepts.

Molecular biophysics is an interdisciplinary domain of research which combines the principles of physics, chemistry, mathematics, engineering and biology. It aims to explain bimolecular systems and biological functions in terms of dynamic behaviour, molecular structure and structural organization. This field seeks to understand biological processes and functions at different levels of complexity, such as from viruses to small living systems, and from single molecules to supramolecular structures. The study of allosteric interactions, molecular forces, molecular associations, cable theory and Brownian motion are also addressed by molecular biophysics. Procedures that enable imaging and manipulation of living structures aid research in molecular biophysics. Spectroscopic techniques comprising of laser Raman, FT-NMR, FT-infrared, spin label electron spin resonance, etc. are widely used to understand structural dynamics of biomolecules and their intermolecular interactions. This book is a compilation of chapters that discuss the most vital concepts and emerging trends in the field of molecular biophysics. The various advancements in this field are glanced at and their applications as well as ramifications are looked at in detail. Students, researchers, experts and all associated with molecular biophysics will benefit alike from this book.

Infectious diseases of animals are a substantial hazard to animal health and welfare, with implications for agronomic health, food supply and economy. Changes in agricultural practices and global climate conditions are conducive to the spread of infectious diseases. Arthropod-borne diseases and zoonotic infections are on the rise. Zoonotic or phonetic infections pose not only a threat to animal health, but can adversely affect humans. Foot rot, anthrax, rabies, swine vesicular disease, glanders, etc. are veterinary infections. Certain diseases are specific to one type of stock, such as scrapie and classical swine fever, while others can affect all animals with a specific trait, such as foot and mouth disease which affects all cloven-hoofed animals. Infection prevention and control typically involves decreasing host exposure to pathogens, decreasing host susceptibility and increasing resistance to infectious pathogens. Immunization, proper feeding and nutrition, judicious use of antimicrobials and other drugs, management of underlying disease, adequate pain control, etc. are certain measures that can be adopted to prevent such infections. This book unravels the recent studies in the field of veterinary infections. Also included herein is a detailed explanation of the various strategies for the prevention and control of veterinary infectious diseases. The extensive content of this book provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

The serious disturbances that occur for a short period of time and cause extensive material, economic, human and environmental loss are termed as disasters. Natural and man-made disasters are the two primary types of disasters. The natural phenomena such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, tornados and landslides are the natural disasters. Catastrophe such as transport accidents, oil spills and nuclear explosions are the examples of man-made disasters. Disaster management aims to reduce the harmful effects of disasters. The three main areas of disaster management are disaster planning, disaster recovery and disaster response. Disaster planning includes the methods used to prevent disasters from occurring. Disaster response is the ability to deal with the challenges presented by the disaster events. Disaster recovery includes the utilization of technological systems after disaster to return to the former condition. The book studies, analyzes and upholds the pillars of disaster management and its utmost significance in modern times. Most of the topics introduced herein cover new techniques and the applications of disaster management. This book will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

The forests are the areas that are majorly dominated by trees. They are classified into various types such as boreal forests, tropical and subtropical forests, and the forests of temperate zones. Forests are the basis of a major part of the Earth's terrestrial ecosystem. Sustainable forest management is an important approach that is concerned with the management of the forests as per the principles of sustainable development. The main objective of this field is to maintain balance between the ecological, economic and socio-cultural aspects. The primary focus of sustainable management of forests is safeguarding the biodiversity and ecosystems provided by forests as well as their protection from the adverse effects of climate change. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to sustainable management of forests. It strives to provide a fair idea about this discipline and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances within this field. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

A natural woodland unit which consists of all plants, animals and microorganisms in that area functioning together with all of the non-living physical factors of the environment is known as a forest ecosystem. Forest ecology is a diverse and important branch of ecological study, where trees are studied along with other elements, such as wildlife or soil nutrients. Trees contain a large amount of water and are considered to be important regulators of hydrological processes. Therefore, study of the forest ecosystems is closely related to resource planning studies along with meteorological and hydrological studies. The measure of the ability of a particular species to compete with other species in a given geographical area is known as ecological potential. It is a major focus area of this discipline. This book provides significant information on forest ecology and the functioning of a forest ecosystem. It consists of contributions made by international experts. Those who are in search of information in order to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary subject which encompasses biological, physical and information sciences such as, ecology, chemistry, zoology, oceanography, soil science and many others. It also includes atmospheric science. It uses all these scientific fields to study the environment and find solutions to environment related problems. Environmental science provides a quantitative and integrated approach to the study of environmental systems. Environmental science aims to understand the earth processes, mitigation of pollution, alternative energy systems and also the effects of global climate change. It examines the environmental problems and finds the appropriate solutions. The four primary components of this discipline include ecology, geoscience, atmospheric sciences and environmental chemistry. All these components can be further classified into focused branches to facilitate the understanding of our environment. This book traces the progress of this field and highlights some of its key concepts and applications. It strives to provide a fair idea about this discipline and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances within this field. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Coal is a natural resource that is highly valued for its energy content. The steel and cement industries depend on coal for the extraction of iron from iron ore and for the manufacture of cement. The process of extracting coal from a coal pit is known as coal mining. The technical and economic feasibility of a coal extraction process depend on coal seam continuity, thickness, quality, depth, overburden characteristics, topography, surface drainage patterns, etc. Mining can be done on the surface or deep underground. Strip mining, contour mining and mountaintop removal mining are the three primary types of surface mining. There have been several strides in technological advancements in coal mining in recent times. The use of sophisticated sensing equipment for monitoring air quality, hazardous gas monitoring, gas drainage, improved mining techniques, and the employment of highly skilled task force adept at the use of complex state-of-the-art equipment has made coal mining productive and safe. This book provides comprehensive insights into coal mining. It discusses the fundamentals as well as modern approaches of coal mining. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Soil science is a field concerned with the study of the soil, its classification, formation and mapping. The analysis of the fertility of the soil as well as its biological, physical and chemical properties is also encompassed in this field. Pedology and edaphology are the two branches of soil science. Pedology studies soil in its natural setting while edaphology studies the interactions of soil. Empirical soil data is obtained from soil surveys that are acquired through field sampling and remote sensing. In the current scenario, due to the prospects of a crucial water crisis, escalating population growth, increased land degradation and high per capita food consumption, soil science is an important field of study. Current direction of soil research is therefore aimed at the study of soil in relation to carbon sequestration, climate change and greenhouse gases. This book is a compilation of chapters that discuss the most vital concepts and emerging trends in the field of soil science. Such selected concepts that redefine this field have been presented in this book. The readers would gain knowledge that would broaden their perspective about soil science.