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Reconfigurable computing is the computer architecture that combines the flexibility of software with high performing hardware by processing with high speed, flexible computing fabrics such as field-programming gate arrays (FPGAs). The central theories of reconfigurable computing are Tredennick's Classification and Hartenstein's Xputer. Modern reconfigurable computing systems include COPACOBANA, Intel, Xilinx, Mitrionics, etc. The classification of reconfigurable architectures is continuously being developed and redefined with the development of new architectures. The current classification is based on granularity, host coupling, rate of reconfiguration and routing interconnects. This book unravels the recent studies in the field of reconfigurable computing. Also included herein is a detailed explanation of the architecture, logic and applications of reconfigurable computing. This book, with its detailed analyses and data, will prove immensely beneficial to professionals and students involved in this area at various levels.

Microeconomics is a branch of economics. It studies the behavior of individuals and firms for the purpose of making decisions with regards to the allocation of scarce resources and interactions among individuals and firms. Analyzing market mechanisms to establish relative prices among goods and services is a primary goal of microeconomics. It is also involved in market failure analyses. The fundamental concepts of microeconomics are demand, supply, equilibrium, measurement of elasticities, theory of production, consumer demand theory and costs of production, among many others. Some of the specialized areas of applied microeconomics are labor economics, financial economics, public economics, health economics, etc. The topics covered in this extensive textbook deal with the core concepts of microeconomics. Different approaches, evaluations, methodologies and advanced studies on microeconomics have been included in this book. For someone with an interest and eye for detail, this book covers the most significant topics in this field.

Social science is an academic discipline that is concerned with the study of the society and the different associations and relationships among individuals in a society. It is a vast subject with numerous sub-domains such as archaeology, anthropology, history, human geography, political science and sociology, among many others. Research in social science is conducted by employing a range of methods for analyzing social phenomena, such as census survey data and in-depth analysis of social experiences of a single subject, investigation of historical documents, etc. Research methods can be divided into the two categories of quantitative designs and qualitative designs that approach social phenomena from the opposing spectrums of quantifiable evidence and statistical analyses, and participant communication and direct observation respectively. The study of social phenomena is guided by certain social theories, such as critical theory, Marxist theories, feminist theory, dialectical materialism, social constructionism, structural functionalism, etc. This book unravels the recent studies in the field of social science. There has been rapid progress in this field and its applications are finding their way across multiple fields. It is a vital tool for all researching or studying social science as it gives incredible insights into emerging trends and concepts.

Social rehabilitation can refer to the provision and facilitation of support to people experiencing trauma or disabilities, therapies for children with special needs, developmental disorders and adaptation issues, recovery for drug addicts and alcoholics, and corrective actions for felons including juveniles for their eventual reintroduction into society. Social rehabilitation builds on various studies such as correctional psychology, which applies psychology in correctional settings such as jails and prisons, to ensure standards of care for offenders and mentally ill individuals. Alternatives to imprisonment of offenders can be adopted such as community service, guidance and counsel, and probation. Local support groups, counseling, dedicated care centers and behavioral therapies can be instrumental in providing care to individuals with addiction to psychoactive substances. A nation's government can undertake various welfare services for people with such special needs and make structural reforms in the judicial and administrative policies for their proper inclusion in the society. This book is a compilation of chapters that discuss the most vital concepts and emerging trends in the field of social rehabilitation. The topics included herein are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. The extensive content of this book will provide the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

Sociology is the study of the society, culture, social relationships and social interactions. It uses various methods of critical analysis and empirical investigation for developing an understanding of social order, social change and evolution. This field ranges from the level of individual agency to macro levels of social structure. The focus areas of sociology are social class, secularization, social stratification, gender and sexuality, among others. The theories of sociology fall within the categories of classical and 20th century social theory. The former includes functionalism, conflict theory and utilitarianism, while the latter encompasses structuralism and post-structuralism, besides others. Research methods in sociology are archival research, content analysis, experimental research, survey research, observation and longitudinal study, etc. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to sociology. While understanding the long-term perspectives of the topics, the book makes an effort in highlighting their impact as a modern tool for the growth of the discipline. It attempts to assist those with a goal of delving into this field.

Gender studies is an interdisciplinary field, which studies gender identity and gender representation. It includes fields like women studies, men's studies and queer studies. This vast subject encompasses the study and analysis of gender and sexuality and their representation, interactions and presence in diverse fields such as literature, cinema, history, language, law, human development, etc. It also takes into consideration how disability, ethnicity, race, class, nationality and location affect gender and sexuality. Modern approach towards gender studies includes discussions on gay marriage, gay rights and adoption. The field also delves into an in-depth study of femininity and masculinity along with the numerous constraints surrounding it. This book presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe in the varied aspects of gender studies. It presents this complex subject in the most comprehensible and easy to understand language. As this field is emerging at a rapid pace, the contents of this book will help the readers understand the modern concepts of the subject.

Business refers to the practice of buying and selling goods and services with the objective of making money or earning a living. Business transcends across diverse fields of entertainment, industrial manufacturing, finance, agriculture, transportation, etc. Understanding of economics is vital to the study of business. It is the social science that studies distribution, production and consumption of goods and services. Economics is majorly divided into two primary branches, namely microeconomics and macroeconomics. The former refers to the study of individual agents, such as household, firms, buyers and sellers, their interactions and outcomes of those interactions. Macroeconomics is the study and analysis of the entire economy, taking into consideration issues like inflation, capital, economic growth, etc. This book traces the progress in the fields of business and economics and their relationship with each other. It highlights some of the emerging trends and applications. In this book, using case studies and examples, constant effort has been made to make the understanding of the difficult concepts of business and economics as easy and informative as possible, for the readers.

Scholarly communication is the system of creation, evaluation, dissemination and preservation of scholarly writings. Most of the scholarly communication is generally published in scholarly books, journals, reviews, discussion forums, blogs, etc. Other scholarly publications, particularly in the fields of arts and the humanities, may involve video and sound recordings. Libraries are crucial for the facilitation, dissemination and evaluation of scholarly information. These provide access to journals and other resources to help researchers, patrons and readers to gain information for conducting their own research. High pricing of research journals, proliferation of new journals, emergence of electronic journals as well as the internationalization and commercialization of scholarly publishing calls for a modern approach to scholarly communication. Modern research libraries have developed outreach programs to propagate information about open access, copyright and other communication issues. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to library science. It also discusses the fundamentals as well as modern approaches of scholarly communication. Students, libraries, researchers, experts and all associated with these fields will benefit alike from this book.

Political psychology is a bi-directional academic discipline, in which psychology is used to understand politics and the behavior of politicians and simultaneously, politics is used to understand human psychology. The aim of this discipline is to study the interdependent relationship that individuals share and how it is influenced by different beliefs, learning, perception, motivation, socialization, etc. The three main personality driven approaches to the study of political psychology are trait-based approach, psychoanalytical approach and motive-based approach. Foreign policy making, war, voting attitude, leadership role, racist behavior and the role of media in influencing voting are some of the significant areas where the theories of political psychology are extensively applied. This book studies, analyzes and upholds the pillars of political psychology and its utmost significance in modern times. It elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective development with respect to this area of study. With state-of-the-art inputs by acclaimed experts of this field, this book targets students and professionals.

Rail transport refers to the transfer of goods and passengers from one place to another on wheeled vehicles, which run on tracks or rails. Urban rail transit includes providing transit services to passengers and goods in and around urban and sub-urban areas. The planning and management of urban rail transit includes the maintenance, safety and financial planning of the rail transport. Regular inspections done via track geometry cars and walking inspections are a part of rail maintenance. The socio-economic benefits and energy efficiency are some of the primary concerns while planning an urban rail system. This book discusses the fundamentals as well as modern approaches of urban rail transportation. It explores all the important aspects of urban rail transportation in the present day scenario. The book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.

The sub-field of sociology that utilizes computationally intensive methods for analyzing and modeling of social phenomena is called computational sociology. It uses the techniques of computer simulations, complex statistical methods, and social network analysis to develop and analyze complex social processes. This discipline includes the understanding of social agents, interaction between these agents and the effect of such interactions on the social aggregate. Computational sociology deals with varied challenges pertaining to the determination of the levels of society and their interactions, culture modeling, design of informative simulations for large scale data, model choice, etc. Different approaches, evaluations, methodologies and advanced studies on computational sociology have been included in this book. From theories to research to practical applications, case studies related to all contemporary topics of relevance to this field have been included herein. Students, researchers, experts and all associated with computational sociology will benefit alike from this book.

The field concerned with the collection, classification, analysis, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information is referred to as information science. Some of the focus areas in this field are information access, information architecture, information society, information seeking, and knowledge representation and reasoning. The integration of library science and information science is known as library and information science. The digitization of information has impacted the approach towards libraries. Libraries nowadays have the contents of catalogs searchable online and varied search engines facilitating the search for academic resources in an easy manner. Bibliographic databases and citation indexes are the most prominent examples of information dissemination. Interactive information retrieval, digital repositories, scholarly communication and library management are some of the focus areas of this field. All these innovations have reshaped information exchange through libraries. This book provides comprehensive insights into the 21st century library, and how they facilitate information exchange. It will help the readers in keeping pace with the rapid changes in this field.

Economics refers to the social science, which studies the distribution, consumption, as well as the production of goods and services. The subject is broadly divided into two sections namely microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics is concerned with the study and analysis of the markets and individual agents like, sellers, firms and buyers. Macroeconomics deals with the aggregated investment, production, consumption and savings in the entire economy and the issues affecting them. Business environment is the ability of a firm or company to maintain and build its customer relations. This subject involves analysis of the micro, macro and the internal environment. The purchasing power of consumers is affected by the economic factors such as interest rate, recession, inflation rate, etc. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the diverse areas of economics and their relation with business environment. It presents these complex subjects in the most comprehensible and easy to understand language. It aims to serve as a resource guide for students and experts alike and contribute to the growth of the disciplines.

The measure of development on a global scale is referred to as international development. The Millennium Development Goals of the United Nations are a set of targets and objectives to achieve long-term social, economic and political development. This is achieved with a focus on healthcare, education, gender equality, human rights, poverty reduction, infrastructure, etc. International aid to alleviate the issues surrounding a lack of development is generally a temporary measure. The long-term strategies focus on more culturally sensitive and economically and politically relevant projects that aim to empower women, care for the environment and strengthen local economies. Developing a sustainable and rights-based approach to development with an emphasis on capacity building is the fundamental step towards achieving international development. Human development is measured using a variety of indices such as life expectancy, national GDP, literacy rate, human development index, etc. This book discusses the fundamentals as well as modern approaches of international development. It brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of this field. This book includes contributions of experts and scientists, which will provide important insights into the domain of international development.

The academic discipline that delves into the implementation of government policies and prepares civil servants to work in the public service is called public administration. The public administrators include heads of county, states, city, regional and federal departments like human resource administrators, census managers and cabinet secretaries, among many others. Public administration plays a crucial role in international development. It formulates policies concerning immigration services, national defense, foreign affairs, etc. which directly impact the international affairs and assistance. International development is focused on improving the social, economic and political scenario of a country. The objective of this book is to give a general view of the different areas of public administration and international development and their applications. It brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of these fields. For all those who are interested in public administration and international development, this book can prove to be an essential guide.

Occupational therapy is an allied health profession, which is concerned with the use of interventions and assessments to recover, maintain, and develop meaningful activities for individuals, groups or communities. It has developed owing to the philosophical ideals of humanism, pragmatism and romanticism. It primarily works with people who suffer from injuries, disabilities, health problems or impairments. Support for adults experiencing physical and cognitive impairment, injury rehabilitation and assistance to children with disabilities are under the scope of this field. Some common models which form the framework of practice of this field include person environment occupation performance model, cognitive-behavioral frame of reference, model of human occupation, the recovery model, etc. The objective of this book is to give a general view of the different areas and practices of occupational therapy. It elucidates the modern trends and techniques of this healthcare profession. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this text.

A photonic sensor is a device that is made of a p-n junction, which converts photons into current. Some examples of photosensors are photodiodes and phototransistors. Polarization, photoelectric effect, photochemical changes and weak interaction effects are the mechanisms fundamental to the working of photonic sensors. A number of performance characteristics are important for the characterization of photonic sensors. These include response time, spectral response, detectivity, responsivity and quantum efficiency, among others. Depending on the mechanisms or the technology involved in the detection of light, photosensors can be classified into semiconductor, photoelectric, photovoltaic, photochemical and thermal photosensors. Some photoelectric photosensors are phototubes and photomultiplier tubes. Active-pixel sensors, charge-coupled devices, etc. are some of the semiconductor photosensors. This book includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to photonic sensors. The various advancements in this field are glanced at and their applications as well as ramifications are looked at in detail in the book. It will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers in this field.

The planning and development of cities is under the scope of urban planning. It is a technical and political process, which is concerned with the design of the physical layout of settlements in an urban setting. This involves the strategic planning of land and water use, as well as communication, transportation and distribution networks. Its chief objective is public welfare. A layout is developed with focus on the issues of sustainability, current and potential pollution, crime, economic development, congestion and social equity. City development is achieved by using the techniques of zoning, geographic mapping and analysis, prediction of population growth, survey of the water supply, allocation of healthcare and other social services, etc. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the theory and practice of city planning and development. Its aim is to present researches that have transformed this discipline and aided its advancement. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for urban planners, city managers, policy makers, experts and students involved in this area at various levels.

The processes, mechanisms and relations employed to control and direct corporates is known as corporate governance. It includes designing the policies, practices, actions and plans used to monitor the functions of a corporation. The power of decision-making and key responsibilities are divided amongst the members of the corporate such as, managers, directors, auditors, stakeholders, etc. Strategic decision-making is an essential part of corporate governance. It refers to the formulation and implementation of initiatives and goals taken by the top management. It includes formulating plans after analyzing the resources and the environment for the company. This book presents the complex subject of corporate governance and strategic decision-making in the most comprehensible and easy to understand language. Some of the diverse topics covered in this book address the varied branches that fall under this category. This book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in these areas as well as for experts.

Finite element method refers to the numerical method, which is used to solve problems in mathematical physics and engineering. The areas where finite element method is mostly applied are fluid flow, structural analysis, mass transport, heat transfer and electromagnetic potential problems. This method divides the problem into simpler and smaller parts called finite elements, in order to solve it. Algebraic equations are formulated for each element, which are then assembled into a larger set of equations that models the whole problem. Variational methods are then applied to find an approximate solution by minimizing the associated error function. The different finite element methods are applied element method (AEM), extended finite element method (XFEM), meshfree methods, Loubignac iteration, finite element limit analysis, spectral element method, etc. This book outlines the concepts and applications of finite element method in detail. It strives to provide a fair idea about this discipline and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances within this area of mathematics. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Higher education or tertiary education is the highest but optional stage of formal education. Generally, it is delivered at universities, colleges, academies, conservatories and technological institutes. It is also delivered at some trade schools, vocational schools, etc. Higher education is divided into several broad categories such as general higher education, vocational education and professional higher education, among others. General higher education includes advanced training in the liberal arts, engineering, plastic or visual arts and performing arts. The academic areas within the broad domain of liberal arts are linguistics, mathematics, history, psychology, sociology, etc. Some of the professional higher education fields include law, journalism, human medicine, business and scientific dentistry, besides many others. This book provides comprehensive insights into the field of higher education. Some of the diverse topics covered in this book address the varied branches that fall under this category. It is meant for students who are looking for an elaborate reference text on this domain.

Learning disabilities refer to the conditions that hinder the conventional learning processes in individuals. Some of the causes of neurological impairments are heredity and genetics, problems during pregnancy and birth, and accidents after birth. Exposure of the fetus to drugs or alcohol, oxygen deprivation during childbirth, etc. are some of the factors contributing to the incidence of learning disabilities. Depending on the information processing affected by a disability, learning difficulties can be categorized into reading disorder, disorder of written expression, dyscalculia, nonverbal learning disability, etc. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to the assessment and prevention of learning disabilities. It consists of contributions made by international experts in the area of diagnosis and management of learning disabilities. Students, researchers, experts and all associated with this domain will benefit alike from this book.

As a sub-field of photonics, optoelectronics refers to the practice of using and studying electronic devices and systems, which control, source and detect light. Optoelectronics is based on the fundamentals of quantum mechanical effects of light. It focuses on light's effect on semiconductors, and other electronic materials. The different optoelectronic devices are optoisolators, photoresistors, phototransistors, quantum cascade lasers, OLEDs, photomultipliers, light-emitting diodes, etc. Research in this field has enabled scientists to apply principles of optoelectronics in optocoupler and optical fiber communications. This book presents the complex subject of optoelectronics in the most comprehensible and easy to understand language. Such selected concepts that redefine the subject have been presented in it. This extensive book is a vital tool for all researching and studying this field.

Urban development is also known as regional, town and city planning. It is the process of developing, planning and designing the land use in an urban setting. It also involves the development of transportation, distribution networks and communication channels in the urban area. The physical layout of human settlements is constructed, with emphasis on public welfare, sanitation and protection of the environment. Other significant considerations of this domain are sustainability, economic development, social equity, land value, etc. Sustainability refers to the process of using resources in a responsible manner in order to ensure their availability for potential needs of future generations. The judicious use of resources through urban planning is a major goal of sustainable development. This book explores all the important aspects of urban development and sustainability in the present day scenario. It is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the theory and practices of this area. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this text.

Semiotics refers to the study of sign processes, meaning-making and meaningful communication. It also studies allegory, analogy, symbolism, metaphor, etc. The different branches of semiotics include cognitive semiotics, film semiotics, biosemiotics, nuclear semiotics, visual semiotics, social semiotics, structuralism and post-structuralism, etc. Semiotic analysis is employed to understand the meaning behind symbols and how such meanings are created. Semiotics provides the methodology for the analysis of texts and improvement of ergonomic design in situations that require the effective interaction of humans with their environments. This book discusses the fundamentals as well as modern approaches of semiotics. The objective of this book is to give a general view of the different areas of semiotics, and its applications. It is a vital tool for all researching or studying this field as it gives incredible insights into emerging trends and concepts.

Artificial neural networks (ANNs) are computing systems that are motivated by the design and functioning of biological neural networks. Its design is driven by the goal of solving problems in a manner that mimics the working of the human brain. To achieve this, a system of artificial neurons is constructed, which transmits signals through connections. ANN can be programmed to deliver on the functionalities of data processing, classification, function approximation, robotics and control. Its use, however, requires an understanding of the learning algorithm, choice of model and robustness. Due to its diverse capabilities, ANN has potential applications in medical diagnosis, finance, ocean modeling, vehicle control, face identification, among many others. This book contains some path-breaking studies in the field of artificial neural networks. The ever-growing need of advanced technology is the reason that has fueled the research in the field of artificial neural networks in recent times. Coherent flow of topics, student-friendly language and extensive use of examples make this book an invaluable source of knowledge.

E-learning refers to the practice of improving learning by using, managing and creating technological processes and resources in order to enhance performance. The subject includes various different aspects such as online learning, learning theory, m-learning, computer-based training, etc. There are three fundamental schools of thought included in e-learning namely, behaviorism, constructivism and cognitivism. The different media tools used in e-learning are computers, mobile devices, tablets, webcams, social networks, virtual classrooms, etc. E-learning helps in facilitating the access to education for all, especially non-full-time students. This book provides significant information on this discipline to help develop a good understanding of e-learning and related fields. The various advancements in this field are glanced at and their applications as well as ramifications are looked at in detail. It will help the readers in keeping pace with the rapid changes in this area.

Technological innovation system explains the nature and rate of technological change. It can be applied to three levels of analysis namely, to technology as a field of knowledge, to a product or artifact, or to a set of related products and artifacts developed with the aim to satisfy a specific purpose. The structures in a technological innovation system represent the static aspect of the system and are distinguished into three categories- actors, institutions and technological factors. The organizations that contribute to a technology are actors. These may also be developers, financiers, regulators, etc. The institutional structures form the core of the innovation system. These are the institutional rules and constraints that shape human interaction. Technological factors are essential for understanding the feedback mechanisms between technological and institutional change. The book studies, analyzes and upholds the pillars of technological innovation management with respect to business organizations and its utmost significance in modern times. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.

Source coding refers to the process of encoding information using fewer bits compared to the original data. It can be lossy or lossless. Lossless compression is characterized by the elimination of loss of information and statistical redundancy. In lossy compression, bits are reduced by removing unnecessary information. In both these compressions, using the techniques of linear prediction, coding and pattern recognition, there is a reduction in information redundancy. Such compression of data is useful for storing and transmission of data. Some of the video coding formats are MPEG-2 Part 2, MPEG-4 Part 2, AV1, Theora, etc. Some vastly popular and commonly used image coding formats are JPEG, PNG and GIF. This book traces the progress in the field of image and video coding and highlights some of its key concepts. It includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to coding standards, tools and techniques. It is a resource guide for experts as well as students.

A computer based system which consists of multiple intelligent agents interacting with each other is called a multi-agent system. It is very advanced when compared to an individual agent or monolithic system and can solve problems. The three fundamental characteristics of multi-agent systems are autonomy, local views and decentralization. Multi-agent systems have applications in computer games, films, defense systems, logistics, transportation, graphics, GIS, etc. The objective of this book is to give a general view of the different areas of multi-agent systems, and their applications. The topics covered herein offer the readers new insights in the design, synthesis and analysis of multi-agent systems. As this field is emerging at a fast pace, this book will help the readers to better understand multi-agent systems.