Bøger i Environmental Science Research serien

I. Prostatic Cancer Bone Metastasis: An International Perspective.- Clinical Dilemmas and Problems in Assessing Prostatic Metastasis to Bone: The Scientific Challenge.- Comparative Study of Prostatic Carcinoma Bone Metastasis among Japanese in Japan and Japanese Americans and Whites in Hawaii.- Prostate Cancer in the United States and Japan.- Analysis of Survival of Prostate Cancer Patients in Japan and the USA.- II. Biology.- The Cellular Basis for Prostate Cancer Metastasis.- Cytogenetic and Molecular Genetic Aspects of Human Prostate Cancer: Primary and Metastatic.- Hemodynamics of Prostate Bone Metastases.- Role of the Vertebral Venous System in Metastatic Spread of Cancer Cells to the Bone.- Clinical Significance of the Vertebral Vein in Prostate Cancer Metastasis.- Effects of Various Growth Factors on a Chondrocyte Differentiation Model.- Potential Role of HBGF (FGF) and TGF-Beta on Prostate Growth.- Hormone Refractory Prostatic Cancer: The Role of Radiolabelled Diphosphonates and Growth Factor Inhibitors.- III. Models.- Localization of Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor (bFGF) in a Metastatic Cell Line (AT-3) Established from the Dunning Prostatic Carcinoma of Rat: Application of a Specific Monoclonal Antibody.- Use of a Reconstituted Basement Membrane to Study the Invasiveness of Tumor Cells.- Animal Prostate Carcinoma Models: Limited Potential for Vertebral Metastasis.- A Model for Studies on Human Prostatic Carcinoma.- IV. Pathology.- Studies on the Pathogenesis of Osteoblastic Metastases by Prostate Cancer.- Analysis of Bone Metastasis of Prostatic Adenocarcinoma in 137 Autopsy Cases.- Nucleolar Organizer Regions in Prostate Cancer.- Flow Cytometric Analysis of Prostatic Carcinoma with and without Bone Marrow Metastasis.- V. Evaluation.- Evaluation of the Response of Bone Metastases to Therapy.- Computed Tomographic Evaluation of Bone Metastases in Prostatic Cancer Patients.- Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Bone Metastases.- Bone Marrow MRI in Prostate Cancer.- Bone Mineral Density for Patients with Bone Metastasis of Prostate Cancer: A Preliminary Report.- Quantification of Changes in Bone Scans of Patients with Osseous Metastases of Prostatic Carcinoma.- The Usefulness of Serum Acid Phosphatase in Monitoring Patients with Advanced Prostate Carcinoma.- VI. Treatment.- Radiation Treatment of Prostate Bone Metastases and the Biological Considerations.- Clinical Course of Bone Metastasis from Prostatic Cancer Following Endocrine Therapy: Examination with Bone X-Ray.- Palliative Radiotherapy of Bone Metastasis.- Clinical Study of Bone-Related Relapse in Prostate Carcinoma.- Surgical Treatment of Metastatic Tumors of Long Bones and the Spine.- Hormone Therapy of Prostatic Bone Metastases.

Biophysics and Psychophysics of Photoreceptors.- Visual Pigments and Colour Vision in Primates.- The Cost of Trichromaticity for Spatial Vision.- Variability in Cone Populations and Implications.- Discussion: Biophysics and Psychophysics of Photoreceptor.- Transition from Photopic to Scotopic Light Assessments and Possible Underlying Processes.- Dual Rod Pathways.- Wavelength-Discrimination with Only Rods and Blue Cones.- Density of Bipolar Cells in the Macaque Monkey Retina.- Discussion: Rod Vision.- Parvocellular and Magnocellular Pathways and Psychophysics.- Which Cells Code for Color?.- Receptive Field Structure of P and M Cells in the Monkey Retina.- On the Relation between Cellular Sensitivity and Psychophysical Detection.- P and M Pathway Specialization in the Macaque.- The Color-Opponent and Broad-band Channels of the Primate Visual System.- Discussion: P- and M-Pathways I.- Temporal Characteristics of Colour Vision: VEP and Psychophysical Measurements.- The Contribution of Colour to Motion.- Functional Classification of Parallel Pathways.- The Responses of Macaque Retinal Ganglion Cells to Complex Temporal Waveforms.- Remote Surrounds and the Sensitivity of Primate P-Cells.- On Neurophysiological Correlates of Simultaneous Colour and Brightness Contrast as Demonstrated in P-LGN-Cells of the Macaque.- Development of Infant Contrast Sensitivity and Acuity for Coloured Patterns.- Psychophysical Evidence of two Gradients of Neural Sampling in Peripheral Vision.- Discussion: P- and M-Pathways II.- Visual Evoked Potentials.- On the Nature of Visual Evoked Potentials, Unit Responses and Psychophysics.- Localization of the Electromagnetic Sources of the Pattern Onset Response in Man.- Discussion: Evoked Potentials.- Cortical Processing and Psychophysical Measurement.- Probing the Primate Visual Cortex: Pathways and Perspectives.- Lateral Interactions in Visual Cortex.- The Perceptual Significance of Cortical Organization.- Orientation and Spatial Frequency Selectivity: Properties and Modular Organization.- Orientation and Color Columns in Monkey Striate Cortex.- Discussion: Cortical Processing.- Psychophysical Studies and Post-Receptoral Processes.- Visual Photometry: Relating Psychophysics to some Aspects of Neurophysiology.- Sensory and Perceptual Processes in Seeing Brightness and Lightness.- Assimilation Versus Contrast.- On Achromatic Colors.- Color Opponency from Eye to Brain.- Chromatic Mechanisms beyond Linear Opponency.- Discussion: Psychophysics and Post-Receptoral Processes I.- Adaptation Mechanisms in Color and Brightness.- Testing the Contrast Explanation of Color Constancy.- Adaptation and Color Discrimination.- Studies on Colour Constancy in Man Using a "Checkerboard - Mondrian".- Discussion: Post-Receptoral Processes II.- Models, Neural Processes and Psychophysics.- Origin of Perceptually Measured Phase Shifts in the Visual System.- Psychophysical Correlates of Parvo Channel Function.- On the Physiological Basis of Higher Colour Metrics.- Neural Decoding.- Effects of Phase Shifts between Cone Inputs on Responses of Chromatically Opponent Cells.- Different Neural Codes for Spatial Frequency and Contrast.- Displacement Estimation, Stereo Matching and 'Object' Recognition: A Computer Simulation Approach Working with Real World Imagery.- Scaling and Thresholds of Color and Light Described by an Opponent Model of Color Vision Based on Psychophysical Data.- Discussion: Models and Neural Nets.- General Discussion.- Participants.

volume XIX A of IAU Transactions contains the reports by Presidents of Commissions, covering the period July 1981 - June 1984. The topics of IAU Commissions deal with all of contemporary astronomy and the present volume therefore constitutes an exhaustive and unique record of astronomical research during this interval. It is particularly useful for astronomers and other scientists who want to gain an overview of a certain field, not necessarily near their own research area. Each Commission President was requested, by early 1984, to begin prep­ arations for the compilation of his/her Commission report. All members of Commissions were asked to supply details about their individual research pro­ grammes. The ensuing, very substantial task of concatenating was undertaken in late 1984 by the Presidents, often supported by a team of authors, all recog­ nized authorities in their fields. In order to preserve some measure of uni­ formity - which is in any case very difficult with so many authors - editorial guidelines were sent to Presidents, including the number of pages allotted to each Commission.

The study of the relationship between environmental pollution and human health is in its infancy. The number of substances and mixtures that have been identified in uncontrolled hazardous waste sites or that have been in­ advertently released into the environment is large and data on how thes~ substances are modified as they interact with one another as they migrate through soil, air, and water are limited. There are also limits on our un­ derstanding of how these substances may be ingested, inhaled, or absorbed by people. The complexity of possible interactions between biological, chemical, and physical components in a given environment makes it virtually impossible to evaluate the potential for adverse biological effects ade­ quately in the laboratory. Other, more comprehensive methods which provide realistic and interpretable results must be used. Many scientists believe that humans represent the ultimate sentinel species of a toxic exposure re­ sUlting from environmental pollution, however such exposures may also se­ verely impact environmental health. There exists a wide variety of organ­ isms in the natural environment that could be used to provide an early warning for potential human health effects as well as to indicate adverse ecological effects. The issue of effective utilization of sentinel species for environment­ al monitoring is a rapidly developing area of research which has grown in importance during the last decade.

During the early 1930s, when I was a graduate student and later a post-doctoral researcher at the National Research Council for the University of Wisconsin at Madison, we had the opportunity to get acquainted with many graduate students from China who were sent to the University for training in modern basic sciences as well as social sciences. The University of Wisconsin continues to graduate a large number of Chinese students. Economic conditions in the 1930s were very precarious for the United States and other parts of the world. Many of us students grew closer together because we were living on similarly tight budgets. As a matter of fact, we subleased a part of our apartment in Madison to some Chinese graduate students. This was a very nice opportunity for us to learn about the scientific and cultural back­ ground of our Chinese friends. Many of them came from the interior of China and had had very little opportunity to become acquainted with people from a western culture. Living with these students was a very pleasant and educational experience which gave us a good pic­ ture of the cultural life and educational system of China at that time--an intimate picture that one normally would not see without travelling in that country.

As a result of the industrial revolution, man's technological achievements have been truly great, increasing the quality of life to almost unimagined proportions; but all this progress has not been accomplished without equally un imagined health risks. Sufficiently diagnostic short-term assay procedures have been developed in recent years for us to determine that there are mutagenic agents among thou­ sands of chemicals to which the human population is exposed today. These chemicals were not significantly present prior to the indus­ trial revolution. As of today, there are no procedures available which have been adequately demonstrated to assess individual sus­ ceptibility to genotoxic exposures, and as a result we have had to rely on extrapolating toxicological data from animal model systems. The question is can we afford to allow such an increased environ­ mental selection pressure via mutagenic exposures to occur without expecting adverse long-term effects on our health. It is apparent from this line of reasoning that what is lacking and immediately needed are test procedures that can be applied to humans to assess genotoxic exposure as well as individual susceptibility to it. There have already been two conferences which have focused at­ tention on this research area. "Guidelines for studies of human populations exposed to mutagenic and reproductive hazards" (A. D. Bloom, ed., March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation, White Plains, New York, 1981) and "Indicators of genotoxic exposure in humans" (Banbury Report 13, B. A. Bridges, B. E. Butterworth, and I. B.

The magnitude of the threat to the human genetic material posed by environmental agents has not as yet been fully determined. Never­ theless, the potential hazards of many chemicals have been identi­ fied by studies on lower organisms. However, too little is known regarding the comparability or lack of it between the metabolic pathways available in such organisms and those in man. Although at present there is great public concern for what is considered by some as the excessive use of laboratory animals in toxicological testing, it seems clear that the usage of mammalian systems may be deemed necessary. It has been proposed that cell culture systems might suffice to meet this need, however, such approaches cannot match the complexity of physiological occurances that are present in the intact animal. For studies of genetic effects, some non-invasive human test systems are presently available. These do not, however, meet the re­ quirements for extensive laboratory studies. In order to assess the risks to humans of environmental factors such laboratory investiga­ tions are essential. Therefore, for the forseeable future reliance on experiments using laboratory animals will be necessary. This Volume, which contains the proceedings of a workshop which was held at the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, March 29-31, 1982, explores the existing methodologies and their utility for risk estimations. It covers the most well developed human systems, as well as the most widely used animal tests.

In the four years since the 1978 Symposium on the Application of Short-Term Bioassays in the Fractionation and Analysis of Complex Environmental Mixtures the use of short-term bioassays to evaluate potential health hazards of complex environmental mixtures has substantially increased. Increased research activity has been particularly noticeable in mobile source emissions, where initial observations on the mutagenic activity of diesel particulate extracts reported at the 1978 symposium stimulated the development of major research programs in government and industry. In the absence of appropriate reference materials, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency initiated comparative genotoxicity studies to determine the relative mutagenic and carcinogenic activity and, ultimately, the potential human health risk due to exposure to various complex emission products. Among the materials investigated were those of known health risk, such as coke oven and roofing tar emissions and cigarette smoke condensates, and those of unknown hazard, such as exhaust from diesel-and gasoline-powered vehicles. Studies on diesel emission products proved useful in short­ term bioassay development, as the diesel exhaust extracts were genetically active with low cellular toxicity and could be obtained in relatively large quantities. Availability of such samples aided chemical characterization, and it was eventually determined that the nitro-polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons were among the mutagenic components of diesel exhaust particulate.

Increasing international concern is being expressed regarding the contamination of the environment with polychlorinated dibenzo-p­ dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans because certain of these chemicals have been shown to be highly toxic to animals and are ubiquitous in the environment. They are known to be distributed as contaminants of commercial products and as by-products from com­ bustion processes. A considerable volume of information has accumulated on these chemicals in the past two decades, particularly for the most toxic of them, 2,3,7,8-tetrach1orodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD). However, this body of knowledge has not succeeded in resolving genuine judgmental differences among experts in the field as to the degree of hazard to human health and the environment. In light of the widespread public concern, it is clearly imperative to come to grips with the continuing scientific controversy, to review the data, assess the issues, to see where areas of agreement exist, and where further research is needed to resolve remaining areas of disagree­ ment. This volume represents an effort to contribute to these goals.

For at least 40 years there has been a great interest in the problems created by infectious airborne agents and other toxic sub­ stances transported through the air. During the Second World War, this problem grew out of the very high incidence of upper respira­ tory infections appearing in new military recruits who were brought together in very large, open quarters. As a result, very interest­ ing methods were developed to measure these airborne agents, espe­ cially bacteria, and some important methods were refined for their control. These methods primarily concentrated on ultraviolet radia­ tion, propylene glycol and other means to reduce the dust in an en­ vironment. Because of the specialized circumstances at that time the whole consideration of airborne particles became prominent. Now, with the new strides in the recognition of mutagenic and carcinogenic effects attributed to exposure to airborne chemicals from today's technology, the problem has again become quite promi­ nent. The development of experimental chambers has made it possible to conduct studies under carefully controlled conditions.

Frederick J. de Serres, Ph. D. Office of the Associate Director for Genetics National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (U. S. A. ) 27709 The Workshop on Comparative Chemical Mutagenesis was orga­ nized to begin the process of problem identification and resolution concerning our needs to evaluate the data on test chemicals arising from assays for mutagenic activity on laboratory organisms. In the past, data on chemical mutagens has been generated and published in the scientific literature on a more or less random basis. Individual chemicals enjoy a brief period of "popularity" that leads to a burst of publications in the same or sometimes related assay systems. The incompleteness of the data base, in many of these cases, makes comparative mutagenesis difficult or impossible. In our attempts to compare the genetic effects of a given chemical over a wide range of assay systems, we are often interested in making quantitative as well as qualitative compari­ sons. To restate the first comparison: is the chemical under ques­ tion a weak, moderate or potent mutagen over a wide range of assay systems--or alternatively, does the level of response vary markedly? To make the second comparison, what is needed is information on the spectrum of genetic alterations produced as well as whether this spectrum is consistent over a wide range of organisms.

More than one hundred short-term bioassays are now available for detecting the toxicity, mutagenicity, and potential carcinogenicity of chemicals. These bioassays were developed and validated with individual compounds, and their principal application was perceived to be in evaluating the health hazard of such materials. However, man is rarely exposed to single chemicals; his exposure to hazardous chemicals is more commonly a multifactorial phenomenon. Although chemical analysis can be used to detect known hazardous compounds, it would be a staggering and expensive task to analyze large numbers of samples for all known or suspected hazardous constituents. Furthermore, the biological activity of a complex mixture cannot be reliably predicted from knowledge of its components. On the other hand, bioassays alone cannot tell us which components of complex mixtures are responsible for the biological activity detected. Thus, cost effectiveness and technical feasibility dictate stepwise and perhaps iterative application -of both chemical and biological methods in evaluating the health effects of complex environmental mixtures. Through the coupling of reliable biological detection systems with methods of chemical fractionation and analysis, it is frequently possible to isolate the individual chemical species that show biological activity. Initially, complex mixtures may be separated and bioassayed in carefully defined chemical fractions. The results of such short-term screening bioassays then may be used td guide the course of further fractionation and to determine the need for more stringent and comprehensive biological testing.

This volume contains papers selected from those presented at the International Symposium on the Analysis of Hydrocarbons and Halogenated Hydrocarbons in the Aquatic Environment, May 23-25, 1978. The Symposium was organized by the National Water Research Institute of Environment Canada and the Institute for Environmental Studies of the University of Toronto. The purpose of the Symposium and of this volume was to bring together information on the analyses, behaviour and effects of hydro­ carbons and halogenated hydrocarbons on the aquatic environment. This class of contaminants presents many difficult analytical pro­ blems, and to a large extent our ability to identify environmental problems and assess their severity, depends on the availability of proved analytical techniques. By exposing workers in this field to the techniques and results of others we hope that progress can be made towards solving the many problems caused by these substances. The papers in this volume are divided into five categories: two plenary session addresses given by J.P. Bruce and O. Hutzinger, 11 papers describing quantitative analytical results, 12 papers on analytical methods, 9 papers on incidence, monitoring and pathways; and finally, 13 papers on drinking water, health and biological effects. We were fortunate in having the support of the many organizations and individuals listed after this preface. In particular we thank B.F. Scott and R. Knechtel for their help in organizing the Symposium, S. Paterson, C. Straka, B. Reuber, A. Bobra, R. Wan, S. Austin, G.E.

The principal emphasis of the Department of Radiation Biology and Biophysics is on biological problems. Techniques for measuring are considered very necessary but the development of them is usual­ ly left to someone else. Therefore it is a little unusual for the department to sponsor a conference which is devoted mostly to methodology. Environmental Pollution is a very popular topic now, and one notices that there are a number of scientific conferences devoted to the topic. Furthermore, part of every conference is devoted to measurements of pollutants. So the question becomes one of what should be different about our conference. To start with there are two unique features here: The first is the limited attendance which should provide more meaningful discussion; the second is the availability to the world of all the information in book form after the conference. We gave considerable thought to the contents of the conference which would take advantage of the unique features. Therefore, we decided to look to the future and present material here that is not in routine use. The search for pollutants has just begun, and their presence cannot be established without some means of detection. Many substances are not known to be toxic be­ cause no one has studied them. The necessary information can only be obtained if techniques for detection and measurement are avail­ able.

Poly Chlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are dielectric liquids which have been widely used in various industries for more than 50 years because of their supposed nonflammabi 1 i ty and thei r chemical inertness. PCB pollution and its side effects are the subject of various studies with recent conferences devoted to these PCB studies.

Monitoring the environment is absolutely essential if we are to identify hazards to human health, to assess environmental cleanup efforts, and to prevent further degradation of the ecosystem.

With this proceedings of the fourth symposium on complex mixtures, we continue to revise and extend our knowledge of genetic methods for the evaluation of chemical mixtures in the environment.

Proceedings of the 1995 International Produced Water Seminar held in Trondheim, Norway, September 25-28, 1995

Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Conference of the Center for Environmental Information, Inc., on National Actions for International Commitment, held in Washington, D.C., November 30-December 2, 1994

During the summer of 1980, the First International symposium on Arctic and Alpine Mycology (ISAM-I) was held at the then extant Naval Arctic Research Laboratory near Barrow, Alaska, U.S.A., well within the Arctic Circle (Laursen and Ammirati, Arctic and Alpine Mycology.

This volume, Proceedings of the Conference ACID RAIN: Economic Assessment, is meant to present the areas of agreement which economists have established and the uncertainties which they have discovered in their attempts to use the methodology of economics to better understand the nature of the acid rain issue.

Everyone here is aware of the great amount of publicity being given to some phase of this year's topic of "Polluted Rain", but I wonder how many of the younger generation realize how the entire world got into this kind of predicament.

Complex mixtures discussed include ambient air and water, waste water, drinking water, shale oil, syn thetic fuels, automobile exhaust, diesel particulate, coal fly ash, cigarette smoke condensates, and food products.

There are many areas on this world which might lend themselves to agricultural development and which are, at the present, not used for this purpose.

During the summer of 1980, the First International symposium on Arctic and Alpine Mycology (ISAM-I) was held at the then extant Naval Arctic Research Laboratory near Barrow, Alaska, U.S.A., well within the Arctic Circle (Laursen and Ammirati, Arctic and Alpine Mycology.