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Railways transportation is the means of transfer of passengers and goods using railway systems. It is the safest mode of transit. A railways system is a complex form of engineering. Each system has two major components- the rolling stock or locomotives, and the rail tracks along with their supporting structures and ancillary buildings. Railway signalling is an essential aspect of railway transportation. Railway transportation engineering is responsible for the design, construction and operation of rail transport systems. It encompasses the design and implementation of train control systems, railway systems engineering, control and railway engineering, etc. Efficient railway transportation ensures the continuation of functional supply chain and population mobility. Railway reliability is threatened by an aging infrastructure, security threats, increasing freight costs and inadequate capacity, research in railways transportation systems and engineering is most pertinent in today's scenario. The objective of this book is to give a general view of the different railway transportation systems, and their engineering. It covers in detail some existing theories and innovative concepts revolving around railway transportation. This book is a resource guide for experts as well as students.

Writing a composition requires a complex set of skills such as knowledge of spellings, handwriting and rudimentary linguistic understanding. It also involves all of the processes associated with reading comprehension. The four categories of composition writing are narration, argumentation, description and exposition. Each type has a unique purpose and organizational pattern. People can express emotions, ideas, political views, feelings, arguments, thoughts and many other forms of communication through this medium. Writing a composition has various effects on the brain such as improving memory and reducing stress. The act of writing engages more areas of the brain compared to reading. It also helps in dealing with negative emotions and traumatic memories. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the psychology of written composition. It book provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

A trace element refers to a type of chemical element whose concentration in the environment is very low. Different types of trace elements have been divided into two categories, namely, essential trace elements and non-essential trace elements. Natural processes and anthropogenic activities are responsible for the release of trace elements in the environment. Arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), and lead (Pb) are some of the trace elements that deteriorate the quality and properties of soil. The biogeochemistry of trace elements from soils to rivers is studied for its impact on aquatic ecosystem toxicity. Microbes are crucial in the biogeochemical cycling of trace elements. The global biogeochemical cycle of trace elements is dependent on the speciation, mobility and bioavailability of microbes. This book provides a detailed explanation of the various trace elements found in the environment along with their biogeochemical and biotechnological aspects. It will provide comprehensive knowledge to the readers.

The entrepreneurial system is made up of all the environmental elements and economic actors present in a given region. It is a network of interdependent and self-sustaining relations among organizations, individuals and procedures that collaborate with the aim of fostering innovation as well as entrepreneurial initiatives. The number of actors with entrepreneurial experience and potential determines the strength and capacity of the entrepreneurial system. Entrepreneurs are crucial in market economies because they have a significant impact on the nation's economic expansion. They generate new employment by developing new goods and services, which eventually accelerate economic growth. Entrepreneurship policy is made up of actionable meso, macro and micro initiatives that the government puts into place in order to encourage entrepreneurship. This book provides comprehensive insights into the international entrepreneurial system. It studies and analyses the people, policy and business aspects of this system. The extensive content of this book will provide the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

Manufacturing refers to the utilization of machinery, tools, chemical processing, and human labor to transform raw materials or components into finished goods. It can be broadly categorized into contract manufacturing, additive manufacturing, and advanced manufacturing. Modern manufacturing is central to industrial production, from the production of base materials to the production of semi-finished goods and finished goods. A number of cutting-edge techniques have been developed over the past years that enable manufacturing processes to be more environment friendly, adaptable and less energy-consuming. This book contains some path-breaking studies on modern manufacturing as well as the materials, processes and systems involved in it. It will also provide interesting topics for research which interested readers can take up. The book will help the readers in keeping pace with the rapid changes in this field.

Electrical engineering refers to the field of engineering that studies the use of electromagnetism, electricity and electronics. It can be further subdivided into numerous fields such as power engineering, telecommunications, computer engineering, radio-frequency engineering, systems engineering and signal processing. Mechanical engineering is another branch of engineering that is concerned with the design, development and testing of mechanical and thermal devices and sensors including machinery, tools and engines. It is especially concerned with motion and forces. Electrical and mechanical engineering both include the manufacture and repair of a wide range of electrical and electronic products such as consumer electronics, mobile phones, engines, computers and electrical goods. Electrical engineering focuses on developing and testing power sources, while mechanical engineering deals with making the machine perform its desired function. Mechatronics is a field of engineering which deals with electromechanical systems, and involves the application of concepts from both mechanical and electrical engineering. This book provides comprehensive insights into the field of electrical and mechanical engineering. Researchers and students in this field will be assisted by it.

An analog circuit refers to a type of electronic circuit that can process any analog data or signal, and generates an output in analog form. These circuits are made up of various devices including capacitors, operational amplifiers, resistors and inductors. Analog circuits work with signals that can range from zero to the maximum power supply voltage. Such circuits have the ability to isolate, attenuate, change, amplify, distort or even convert the original signal to a digital signal. An electronic circuit that processes digital signals is known as a digital circuit. The basic components used in digital circuits include diodes, gates, flip flops and transistors. Both analog and digital circuits are used to process and transmit information such as sound and light from their surroundings in order to create continuous changeable signals. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to analog and digital circuits. Researchers and students interested in the study of integrated electronics will be greatly assisted by it.

Steel is the most widely used component in the construction of buildings and structures. There are many advantages of steel over concrete. Its important properties include recyclability, increased durability, and low maintenance. The design of steel structures typically consists of a two-step analysis and verification procedure. The first step is to evaluate the internal forces and displacements based on the principles of equilibrium and compatibility. In the second step, these internal forces and displacements are compared against corresponding resistance, stiffness and ductility values to ensure structural safety and fitness-for-purpose. Plastic analysis is a method that determines the collapse behavior of structures on the basis of cross sections under proportionally increasing loading. This book examines the analysis and design of steel structures. It is a vital tool for all researching or studying these structures as it gives incredible insights into emerging trends and concepts of civil engineering. Its extensive content provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

An electrical machine is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy or vice versa. Major types of electrical machines are generators, motors and transformers. An electric generator is a type of electrical machine that works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. It consists of two main components which are a stator and a rotor. Generators can be classified as AC generators and DC generators. The electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. It can be classified into AC motors and DC motors. The transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electric power from one circuit to another circuit. Some major applications of electric devices are electric vehicles and battery-powered devices such as wheelchairs, power tools, guided vehicles, welding equipment, X-ray and tomographic systems, and computer numerical control (CNC) machines. This book presents the analysis and applications of electrical machines. Students, researchers, experts and all associated with the field of electrical engineering will benefit from it.

The movement of people from one place to another with the aim of settling temporarily or permanently is known as migration. It could be across an international border or from one region to another. Transnationalism is a field of study which has gained prominence due to the heightened interconnectivity between people, and the decreasing economic and social importance of boundaries between countries. The prominent areas of study within this field are economic transnational activities, socio-cultural transnational activities, and political transnational activities. It also helps in gaining a better understanding of the broader geopolitical and global dynamics which cause migration. This book explores all the important aspects of migration, transnationalism and mobility in the present day scenario. It is a complete source of knowledge on the present status of this important area of study.

The middle income trap refers to a state of economic development in which a country achieves a specific level of income and then remains there. According to the World Bank, a middle-income country is the one that has a gross national income (GNI) per capita of $1,000-12,000 (in 2011 prices). It is divided into the lower and upper middle-income group at around $4,000. Many countries such as Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Russia, and South Africa have faced this situation of middle-income trap for a long time. Countries that have GNI corresponding to lower-middle income must achieve a minimum growth rate of 4.7% per annum to ensure that they do not fall into the lower middle-income trap. Similarly, countries that have GNI corresponding to upper middle-income must achieve a minimum growth rate of 3.5% per annum to ensure that they do not fall into the upper middle-income trap. For countries, the only way to avoid the middle-income trap is to grow rapidly. This book is a valuable compilation of researches on the subject of middle-income trap. It will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers in this field.

A currency board is a country's monetary authority that is tasked with sustaining a fixed exchange rate along with a foreign currency. The control of the money supply and exchange rate is delegated to a monetary authority by a currency board. This monetary authority then makes decisions concerning the currency valuation of a country. The currency board permits limitless exchange of the domestic currency with foreign currency to the agents. It provides stable exchange rates that facilitate investment and trade. Currency boards are also well-known for controlling inflation. However, there are certain risks associated with the currency boards. In a crisis, the investors can quickly exchange their domestic currency for foreign currency, leading to an increase in the interest rates. This can severely impact the reserve and liquidity requirements of the banks. This book analyses the risks and benefits associated with currency boards. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area of study as well as for experts.

A financial system refers to a complex and highly interlinked group of institutions, such as banks, NBFCs, insurance companies and stock exchanges that allow the exchange of funds. Lenders, borrowers and investors are the three primary participants in a financial system. These systems exist at local, national, and global levels. Banking is an industry that is made up of a large network of banks that provide various financial and non-financial services to individuals and businesses. Banks handle cash, credit and other financial transactions. They also issue loans on rates higher than the rate at which they accept deposits and thereby make a profit. Banks provide advances and loans in various forms such as cash credit, overdraft facility, call money and bill discounting. The central banks of different countries use the macroeconomic policy tool named monetary policy to influence the cost and availability of money supply in an economy. This book includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to financial systems, banking and the monetary policy. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by it.

Inclusive development refers to the idea that every human being, irrespective of their individuality, can play an important role in changing their societies. Inclusive development processes produce better results for the communities that participate in them. It emphasizes on providing benefits to minorities, the extremely poor in rural areas and those pushed below the poverty line through man-made and natural disasters. Poverty reduction is a set of humanitarian and economic policies aimed at perpetually raising individuals above poverty. The cases of poverty can be found in both developed countries and developing countries. However, poverty is more prevalent in developing countries. Poverty reduction steps to alleviate poverty are implemented by both types of countries. Poverty reduction is mostly driven through higher rates of economic growth. This book contains some path-breaking studies on inclusive development and poverty reduction. A number of latest researches have been included to keep the readers up-to-date with the global concepts in this area of study.

Turkish Americans are people of Turkish descent who live in the United States. Turkish American literature refers to the body of literary works written by people of Turkish ancestry who are residing in the United States of America. Turkish American literature seeks to reimagine Turkey as a multicultural and diverse space. The Turkish Empire's diversity is portrayed in Turkish American textbooks as an indisputable proof of the nation's inherent capacity for tolerance of diversity and multiculturalism. It also engages with the disputed legacy of the Ottoman Empire. Furthermore, it invokes the revitalization of the Islamic identity of Turkey, while looking at the Ottoman Empire's legacy as the key for unlocking multicultural future. This book explores all the important aspects of Turkish American literature in the present day scenario. It aims to serve as a resource guide for students and experts alike and contribute to the growth of study on this body of literature.

Switzerland is a landlocked country situated at the confluence of western, central and southern Europe. It is officially known as the Swiss confederation, which is a semi-direct democratic federal republic. The political system of Swiss government is characterized as being a direct democracy and a representative democracy. Swiss political system, being a direct democracy encourages the Swiss Parliament to come up with broad-based compromise solutions. Additionally, the citizens are also free to challenge any law passed by the parliament or to put forth a change to the federal constitution at any time. There are various challenges associated with direct democracy such as the possibility of people making decisions about difficult problems without having appropriate knowledge of the matter, or a populist agenda influencing critical decisions. This book aims to shed light on the various challenges and solutions in relation to the Swiss democracy. It will provide comprehensive knowledge to the readers.

Customer loyalty refers to a customer's inclination to repetitively buy products and services from the same company. Attracting and maintaining the consumer base has a big impact on the retail industry. As the competition intensifies, majority of the marketers see loyal consumers as one of the most important factors in enhancing profitability and achieving success. Loyal customers buy more frequently and spend more money along with spreading favorable word-of-mouth. Companies design customer loyalty programs under which the loyal customers are offered rewards such as discounts, free merchandise, coupons, or even advance-released products in order to reward and encourage their loyalty. Customer loyalty management aims to expand and maintain existing customers by coordinating marketing and promotional activities to build customer loyalty and trust while also encouraging repeat purchases. Ensuring a positive customer experience is also a way in which the companies can build customer loyalty. Customer experience involves virtual interaction, physical interaction and service interaction. The topics covered in this extensive book deal with the core aspects of loyalty management. It will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers in this area of marketing.

Higher education refers to tertiary education that leads to the award of an academic degree. It is an optional final phase of formal learning that occurs after completing secondary education. Higher education institutions (HEIs) play an important role in fostering a lifelong learning culture. It includes not only colleges and universities but also professional schools that offer training in fields such as theology, business, art, law, medicine and music. Universities play a key role in higher education as the pioneers of many initiatives related to cultural, social, political and economic development that can support the growth of a country. They provide direction for practical learning acquisition and also collaborate with the academic community to achieve their objectives. This book provides significant information on the role of universities in providing higher education. Its extensive content provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

Alcohol and drug use is a leading public health problem in most societies. There are several consequences of alcohol and drug use in adolescents that encompass a range of physical, academic, and social problems. Apart from these problems, excessive alcohol and drug use among adolescents is also associated with certain negative consequences and harmful behaviors such as high-risk sexual behaviors (unplanned and unprotected intercourse), sexual misconduct, accidents, fights, and assaults. Among the youth, alcohol use has become a principal factor responsible for high rate of morbidity and mortality. Alcohol and drug use has become the primary cause of death due to injuries in individuals younger than twenty-one years of age. This book explores the patterns of alcohol and drug use among adolescents as well as its impacts on their lives. It will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers in this area of study.

The process wherein the individuals cast their votes is called voting. This process is prone to manipulation and electoral frauds such as vote buying, vote rigging, and electoral manipulation. Vote buying is a type of electoral fraud that occurs when a political party tries to buy the votes of people for an upcoming election. It seeks to persuade voters to turn up for the election and vote in a particular way. In practice, the political parties can buy votes in two ways. The first way involves offering money and the second way involves buying votes by offering them goods or services. There are several negative impacts of vote buying. It poses a potential threat to democracy, as it tampers the ability to rely on popular vote as a measure of people's support for potential policies of the government. Occurrences of vote buying incidents undermine the autonomy of the voters as well as the power of democracies. This book outlines the causes and consequences of vote buying in detail. Researchers and scholars of political science will be greatly assisted by it.

Semantics refers to the branch of linguistics and logic which focuses on meaning. It can be broadly categorized into lexical semantics and logical semantics. Lexical semantics deals with word meanings and connections between them, and logical semantics focuses on topics such as sense and reference, and presupposition and implication. The legal language refers to any language which is used for the purpose of legal writing. It is different from the day-to-day language in terms of semantics, vocabulary, morphology and syntax. The legal language focuses on consistency, validity, completeness and soundness. This makes the study of meaning within the legal language an important area of inquiry. This study is conducted under the umbrella of legal semantics. This book offers valuable insights into the field of legal semantics. It is an essential reference guide for lawyers, historians, and students seeking to understand the meaning of law and legal language.

Archaeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of objects and architecture that surrounds people. It is often considered a branch of socio-cultural anthropology, but also draws from biological, geological and environmental systems. The study of human remains in their archaeological context falls under the umbrella of mortuary archaeology. Cemetery archaeology is a branch of archaeology that studies the treatment and commemoration of the dead. It involves the study of human remains, their burial contexts, and can range from single graves to monumental landscapes. It also borrows concepts and tools from a variety of different fields such as material culture studies, thanatology, zooarchaeology, human osteology and epigraphy. This book provides comprehensive insights into the field of archaeology. It is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the theory and practice of mortuary archaeology and cemetery archaeology. This book will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

Citizenship refers to the relationship between a nation and a person wherein the person owes their allegiance to the nation and in turn gets protection from the government of the nation. It indicates the status of freedom, which also involves accompanying responsibilities. A person can acquire citizenship mainly by three ways including citizenship by birth, citizenship by naturalization, and citizenship by descent. A recognized citizen of a country enjoys numerous legal benefits including the right to vote, social security, permanent residency, health services, hold public office, and public education. The evolution of citizenship can be traced from Greek city states where women, slaves and foreigners were denied citizenship, to the Renaissance, where it became an abstract idealized concept. This book provides significant information on the concept of national citizenship and its evolution. Its extensive content provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

An embedded system is a microprocessor-based computer hardware system with software. These systems are designed to perform different types of functions either as an independent system or as a part of a large system. An integrated circuit (IC) is an essential part of the embedded system that performs real-time computations and operations. The fundamental structure of any embedded system comprises five principal components which include sensors, A-D converter, processor & ASICs, D-A converter, and an actuator. Embedded systems are regulated by digital signal processors (DSP) or microcontrollers, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA), GPU technology, etc. These processing systems are integrated with components specified to operate electric and/or mechanical interfacing. Embedded systems are widely used in consumer, industrial, automotive, and home appliances. They also have medical, telecommunication, commercial and aerospace applications. This book provides a comprehensive overview of embedded systems. With its detailed analyses and data, it will prove immensely beneficial to professionals and students interested in the design, technologies and applications of these systems.

Mediatization refers to a process in which mass media influences other sectors of society such as politics, business, culture, entertainment, sports, religion and education. Development of technologies such as newspapers, radios, televisions, Internet and interactive social media has been instrumental in shaping the process of mediatization. Deep mediatization refers to an advanced stage of mediatization in which all the elements of the social world are deeply related to digital media and related infrastructures. It has the ability to transform communication in the society. Deep mediatization also leads to a sharp increase in the influence of IT companies. This book provides a comprehensive understanding of the deep mediatization and its capacity to transform communication. For all those who are interested in media and communications, it can prove to be an essential guide. Coherent flow of topics, student-friendly language and extensive use of examples make this book an invaluable source of knowledge.

Beowulf is a heroic epic poem written in old English. The author of Beowulf is unknown. It was written between the 6th and the 10th Century CE. It is one of the most prominent works of Anglo-Saxon literature. It narrates the story of the hero Beowulf, and his battles against three monsters, Grendel, Grendel's mother, and a dragon. The protagonist Beowulf kills Grendel with his bare hands. Grendel's mother is killed by Beowulf using a giant sword that he found in her lair. Thereafter, Beowulf becomes the king of Geats and he rules wisely for 50 years. The image of the giant sword is present at the structural and thematic center of this heroic poem. This book investigates the nature and significance of this weapon and its relationship with Beowulf. The readers would gain knowledge that would broaden their perspective about the use of imagery within this poem.

Positive education is defined as an approach to education that blends academic study with character building and ensures the well-being of the students. It prepares students with life skills such as self-awareness, grit, optimism, emotion regulation, mindfulness and positive habits. The concept of positive education is based on the science of happiness and mental well-being. It helps to promote character development, optimal functioning, learning, and resilience. Under the concept of positive education, schools are viewed as places where students not only develop their intellectual minds but also cultivate a broad set of character strengths, virtues, and competencies. All these attributes together support a student's well-being. This book provides a comprehensive overview of the growing field of positive education. Researchers and practitioners working in the fields of positive psychology, education and school psychology will benefit alike from it.

Beowulf is a heroic epic poem written in old English. The author of Beowulf is unknown. It was written between the 6th and the 10th Century CE. It is one of the most prominent works of Anglo-Saxon literature. It narrates the story of the hero Beowulf, and his battles against three monsters, Grendel, Grendel's mother, and a dragon. The protagonist Beowulf kills Grendel with his bare hands. Grendel's mother is killed by Beowulf using a giant sword that he found in her lair. Thereafter, Beowulf becomes the king of Geats and he rules wisely for 50 years. The image of the giant sword is present at the structural and thematic center of this heroic poem. This book investigates the nature and significance of this weapon and its relationship with Beowulf. The readers would gain knowledge that would broaden their perspective about the use of imagery within this poem.