Bøger udgivet af Hayle Medical

Osteoarthritis is a condition in which the cartilage between joints wears away. Osteoarthritis can occur in specific joints only, such as knee osteoarthritis which only affects the knee joints. The symptoms of knee arthritis include pain, feeling of warmth in the joint, swelling, decreased mobility of the knee, stiffness in the knee, etc. The diagnosis of knee osteoarthritis requires a physical examination of the symptoms experienced, X-ray and MRI scans. Blood tests can ensure that other conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis are ruled out. The goals of the treatment of knee osteoarthritis are to return mobility and relieve the pain. The chief strategies employed to manage the condition include weight loss, stretching exercises, using braces to support the knee and relieve pressure, prescription of anti-inflammatory and pain relieving drugs, injection of corticosteroids into the knees, etc. This book includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to the assessment, diagnosis and treatment of knee osteoarthritis. It provides significant information on osteoarthritis to help develop a good understanding. The book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information of this medical condition as well as for experts.

The surgical specialty which is concerned with the restoration, alteration and reconstruction of the human body is known as plastic surgery. There are two categories of plastic surgery, i.e., reconstructive surgery and cosmetic surgery. Reconstructive surgery deals with the reconstruction of a specific body part to improve its functioning. Reconstructive surgery involves the treatment of burns, microsurgery, hand surgery and craniofacial surgery. Cosmetic surgery is a surgery concerned with both facial as well as body cosmetic surgery. It aims at improving the overall appearance of some specific body part or parts. This book unfolds the innovative aspects of plastic surgery which will be crucial for the progress of this field in the future. It provides significant information of this discipline to help develop a good understanding of plastic surgery and related fields. Doctors, experts and students actively engaged in this field, will find this book full of crucial and unexplored concepts.

Membranes bind all cells together, and the lipid bilayer of cell membranes is extremely impervious for most water-soluble compounds. Membrane transport processes that have been identified in many biological events occur during the formation of electrochemical potentials, uptake of nutrients, removal of wastes, endocytotic internalization of macromolecules, and oxygen transport in respiration. Specific transport proteins catalyze the flow of ions, nutrients, and metabolites across cellular membranes. These transport proteins are studied within pharmaceutical science in order to understand their impact on drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination (ADME), as well as drug safety. Several neurological diseases have been linked to altered CNS transporter expression. As a result, many transport proteins have emerged as pharmacological targets. In this book, various advancements related to the use of membrane transporters as drug targets have been discussed in detail. It aims to equip students and experts with the advanced topics and upcoming concepts in this area of study.

Pain that lasts longer than three months is categorized as chronic. It can originate from anywhere in the body, including brain and spinal cord. In the initial stages, various non-opioid medicines are recommended for treating chronic pain, depending on whether the pain is neuropathic or due to tissue damage. Psychological treatments, including cognitive behavioral therapy, and acceptance and commitment therapy, may effectively improve the quality of life in those with chronic pain. Integrated treatment of chronic pain involves the incorporation of non-pharmacological modalities for decreasing pain and increasing function and quality of life. These include massage, yoga and mindfulness. Those suffering from this medical condition frequently have sleep disturbance and sleeplessness as a result of medication and sickness. The topics covered in this book offer the readers new insights with respect to chronic pain and its integrated treatment. Students, researchers, anesthesiologists, intensive care professionals, surgical and nursing staff, and other medical practitioners will find this book helpful.

The majority of medicines presently in use have their origins in plant sources. Plant-derived compounds contain immunomodulatory properties that make them appropriate for use in drug development. Plant polysaccharides including açaí fruit, ganoderma lucidum and cordyceps sinensis exhibit immunostimulatory or immunomodulatory properties. Flavonoids which include flavonones, isoflavone, xanthones, flavones and flavonols are found in nearly all plants and have a variety of bioactive qualities. Proteins derived from certain herbs are utilized as natural protein supplements for convalescent patients. Additionally, plant-based drugs such as silymarin derived from the seeds of silybum marianum is utilized to treat liver disease, and artemisinin derived from the seeds of artemisia annua is utilized to treat multidrug-resistant malaria. Alkaloids are being repurposed as nitric oxide activators to aid in the prevention of atherosclerosis and obesity. This book is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex advancements in the field of plant based medicines. Those with an interest in this field would find it helpful.

Tissue biomechanics is the study of the ways in which different parts of the human body, such as bones, tendons and muscles, react to external forces. The principal objective of tissue biomechanics is to characterize the mechanical and physical properties of healthy as well as pathological tissues. The results of the measurements from tissue biomechanics can be considered as reference values for the development of biomaterials that can substitute the same tissue. Tissue biomechanics can be utilized for determining the manner in which an injury took place and for assessing the feasibility of medical implants and prosthetic devices. Simple mechanical testing procedures including compressive, tensile, shear, and cyclic loading procedures are often used for the mechanical characterization of tissue properties at the macro-scale. At the micro- and nano-scales, indentation tests such as micro- and nano-indentation could be used for the mechanical characterization of tissues. This book examines the physiology and pathology of tissue biomechanics in detail. With state-of-the-art inputs by acclaimed experts of this field, it targets students and professionals involved in the field of tissue engineering.

A tissue refers to a distinct material comprising of special cells, which work together in coordination to carry out a particular function. There are four types of tissues, namely, connective tissue, epithelial tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. Connective tissue diseases are a set of medical conditions in which the connective tissues of the body are the primary target of pathology. There are several types of connective tissue diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus, marfan syndrome, granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA), and microscopic polyangiitis. The signs and symptoms of these diseases include weakness, fatigue and fever. Some of the major epithelial tissue diseases and conditions include celiac disease, asthma, human papilloma virus (HPV), vertigo, and certain types of cancer. Medications, vitamin supplements and physical therapy can be used to treat these diseases. This book aims to understand the clinical perspectives of tissue diseases. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. This book is a vital tool for all researching and studying these diseases.

Prostate cancer is cancer of the prostate, which is a muscle-driven mechanical switch and an accessory gland of the male reproductive system, which surrounds the urethra and is located just below the bladder. Prostate cancer may not show any symptoms in the beginning. However, symptoms can be seen in the later stages, such as pain in the pelvis or back, blood in the urine or difficulty urinating. Other late symptoms such as fatigue may also occur due to decreased levels of red blood cells. The risk of prostate cancer can increase due to factors like race, family history and old age. Treatments might include chemotherapy, hormone therapy, radiation therapy and a combination of surgery and therapy. Other treatments include targeted therapy, bisphosphonates and pain medications. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the causes, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment of prostate cancer. For all readers who are interested in this medical condition, the case studies included herein will serve as an excellent guide to develop a comprehensive understanding.

Vasculitis refers to a group of disorders in which the blood vessels are destroyed through inflammation. This condition affects both arteries and veins. The primary cause of vasculitis is leukocyte migration and the subsequent damage. There can be several symptoms of this disease such as lung infiltrates, joint swelling, unintentional weight loss, acute visual loss, perforations, livedo reticularis, gangrene, and inflammation of the kidney's filtration units. Diagnosis may involve laboratory testing of body fluids and blood, as well as biopsy of involved tissues or organs. Treatments are focused on stopping the inflammation process and suppressing the immune system. Corticosteroids such as prednisone are commonly utilized for this purpose. This book is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex advancements in the clinical management of vasculitis. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by it.

Stem cells exist in different forms depending on their origin and purpose. They require a unique environment in order to survive, sustain and develop. Stem cells are divided into four categories, namely, embryonic stem cells (ESC), adult stem cells (ASC), induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), and pathological stem cells (PSC). ESC and iPSC are two examples of true pluripotent stem cells. They have the ability for limitless self-renewal and can differentiate into all the specialized cell types of the body. These cells have a lot of potential applications in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. Pluripotent stem cells hold the potential to transform treatment options for a wide variety of diseases and conditions. This book is a compilation of chapters that discuss the most vital concepts related to the biology of pluripotent stem cells. It is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex advancements in this area of research. For all readers who are interested in stem cell biology, the studies included in this book will serve as an excellent guide to develop a comprehensive understanding.

Homeostasis refers to the ability of an organism to keep the body's internal environment within bounds that enable the organism to survive. Chemical regulation, thermoregulation and osmoregulation are the primary types of homeostatic regulations that occur in the body. Muscle regeneration is the ability of an adult muscle to regenerate damaged fibers and it represents an essential homeostatic function. It is an extremely coordinated program, which partly mimics the embryonic developmental program. It also includes the activation of the muscle compartment of stem cells, specifically satellite cells as well as other precursor cells. The activities of these cells are dependent on environmental signals. Muscle regeneration can be hampered by a number of pathological conditions either because of the increasing loss of stem cell populations or due to the absence of signals that prevent damaged tissues from effectively activating a regenerative program. Thus, it is possible that losing control over these cells will result in pathological cell differentiation. The topics included herein on muscle regeneration and homeostasis is of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a glycoprotein polypeptide hormone. It stimulates the gonads i.e., testes in males and ovaries in females. It is synthesized and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland's gonadotropic cells and regulates the body's development, growth, pubertal maturation, and reproductive functions. FSH and Luteinizing hormone (LH) operate together in the reproductive system. FSH is a glycoprotein heterodimer consisting of two polypeptide units, alpha and beta. The alpha subunits of Luteinizing hormone (LH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) are identical but their beta subunits vary. High FSH levels and low FSH levels both are diseased states. Premature menopause, poor ovarian reserve, gonadal dysgenesis, Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, castration and Swyer syndrome are some of the conditions associated with high levels of FSH. Polycystic ovarian syndrome, obesity, hirsutism, infertility, Kallmann syndrome, hypothalamic suppression and hypopituitarism are some conditions related to low levels of FSH. This book unfolds various researches related to the function and use of FSH. These studies can prove to be crucial to the research in the field of reproductive medicine. It will provide comprehensive knowledge on role of follicle stimulating hormone to the readers.

Gluten is a group of proteins including glutelins and prolamins, which exists with starch in the endosperm of several cereal grains. Gluten-related disorders refer to those disorders caused due to gluten. It encompasses various diseases such as gluten ataxia, celiac disease, wheat allergy, non-celiac gluten sensitivity and dermatitis herpetiformis. Such disorders are classified as allergic diseases, autoimmune disorders and non-autoimmune disorders. There are various symptoms of gluten sensitivity such as diarrhea, abdominal discomfort or pain, bloating, and constipation. Individuals having celiac disease can go through serological testing for IgA anti-tissue transglutaminase antibodies and anti-endomysial antibodies where IgA-level is high. If the IgA is low, the person may undergo IgG antibodies testing. If there is a sign of positive serological indication, a duodenal biopsy is required to confirm active celiac disease. The treatment of this disease is only possible by following a lifelong gluten-free diet. This book contains some path-breaking studies on gluten-related disorders. It presents researches and studies performed by experts on the diagnostic approaches, treatment pathways and future perspectives related to these disorders. This book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information on gluten-related disorders as well as for experts.

Public health is an interdisciplinary field that draws from fields such as epidemiology, biostatistics, social sciences, and management of health services. The primary aims of public health include preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health. The objectives of public health can be achieved through organized efforts and choices made by society, public and private organizations, communities, and individuals. The study of public health also involves the role of environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health, health education, health politics, occupational safety, disability, oral health, and reproductive health. The pivotal role of public health is to inform, educate, and empower people about the various health-related problems and their resolutions. This can be performed by assessing current services, ascertaining the requirements of health professionals, and supporting decision making in health care. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide an in-depth knowledge about public health as well as the application of probability, statistics and modeling in this field. It is appropriate for those seeking detailed information in this area of study.

Psychiatric disorder refers to a behavioral or mental pattern, which causes significant distress or impairment of personal functioning. These features can be remitting, persistent and relapsing or may happen as single episodes. Some of the prominent symptoms of psychiatric disorders are excessive fear and worry, poor concentration, feelings of excessive guilt or low self-worth, and alternating depressive episodes with periods of manic symptoms. The area of medicine which studies the nervous system tissues in order to diagnose diseases is known as neuropathology. Organic brain diseases and degenerative diseases exhibit clear morphological and neurohistological abnormalities, and can be efficiently studied within the domain of neuropathology. However, psychiatric illnesses generally do not manifest homogenous brain pathology, and research is ongoing in studying the neuropathological mechanisms of psychiatric disorders. This book presents the symptoms and neuropathological mechanisms of psychiatric disorders. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. The extensive content of this book provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

Mobile phone and Internet addiction refers to a person's inability to control mobile and Internet use. An excessive use of mobile phone and Internet is associated with several complications related to psychological and emotional characteristics such as depression, loneliness, social anxiety and impulsivity. It can lead to an imbalance of chemicals in the brain and can hinder the cognitive capacity of a person. There are several criteria used for diagnosing mobile and Internet addiction. These can be primarily classified as behavioral and functional criteria. The major indicator is the persistent desire and/or unsuccessful attempts to quit or reduce smartphone use. Some of the preventive measures include monitoring the cell mobile phone and Internet use, engaging in mood-boosting activities, counseling, and mental health treatment. This book outlines the evaluation and prevention of mobile phone and Internet addiction in detail. Its extensive content provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

An eating disorder is a mental disorder characterized by abnormal eating behaviors that affect a person's physical or mental wellbeing. The signs and symptoms of eating disorders vary according to the type and severity of an eating disorder. Some common physical manifestations of these disorders include weakness, fatigue, weight loss and stunted growth. Some of the most common types of eating disorders are pica, anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder and rumination disorder. There are several health complications associated with eating disorders including heart disease, acid reflux, hypotension, stroke, amenorrhea and type-2 diabetes. The exact cause of eating disorders is not known. However, genetics and psychological health are considered as major factors, which may lead to these disorders. The clinical assessment of eating disorders involves physical examination, psychological evaluation and other diagnostic tests. Psychotherapy is the most common treatment used for eating disorders. Treatment may also include medications that help in managing excessive eating. This book is a practical resource guide on topics related to the medical care and complications associated with eating disorders. It will also provide interesting topics for research, which the interested readers can take up. The book will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

The regulation of movement in the organisms which have a nervous system is known as motor control. It consists of both reflexes as well as deliberate movement. Biomechanics refers to the study of movements in a living body, which involves the manner in which bones, ligaments, muscles and tendons collaborate for producing movement. It encompasses not only the structure and movement of muscles and bones but also the mechanics of renal function, blood circulation and other body functions. The human body comprises many joints and muscles that work in tandem. The nervous system needs to combine multimodal sensory input in order to regulate movement. Furthermore, it must elicit the required signals for recruiting muscles to complete a task. Motor control then initiates, directs and grades deliberate voluntary movement while also regulating movement related mechanisms. This book includes some of the vital pieces of work being conducted across the world, on various topics related to motor control and human movement. The topics included herein are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers.

Eating disorders are a range of psychological disorders related to abnormal eating behaviors that have a negative impact on health. There are several types of eating disorders including anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, pica, rumination syndrome, and avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID). Bulimia nervosa is a common type of eating disorder that occurs in children and adolescents. It is characterized by recurrent binge episodes of eating a large amount of food followed by purging behaviors such as self-induced vomiting, fasting, and excessive exercise for compensating for the binge behaviors. Doctors usually diagnose the eating disorders by first looking for the signs and symptoms of eating disorders and by evaluating the eating habits of the patient. Based on the preliminary examination, the doctor may perform physical examination, psychological evaluation, blood tests, and urine tests. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is the most common type of treatment for eating disorders. Antidepressants, hospitalization, and nutrition counseling are some other treatment options. This book unravels the recent studies on eating disorders among children and adolescents. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and postgraduate students.

Nursing includes the collaborative and independent care of people and involves preventing illness, supporting good health, and caring for the disabled, sick or dying people. The purpose of nursing care of older adults is intended to assist medical professionals in identifying signs and symptoms, assisting in diagnosis, and choosing relevant outcomes to monitor and evaluate the older adult's status. Nursing interventions are steps taken by the nurse to help the patient reach their goals and achieve the desired outcomes. Some of the examples of nursing interventions include monitoring the body vitals periodically, administering medications, educating the patient, and assessing the patient's pain levels. This book contains a detailed explanation of the diagnosis, interventions and outcomes associated with nursing care of older adults. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Clinical nursing is an advanced nursing practice that involves providing advice related to specific conditions or treatment pathways. It specializes in evidence-based nursing practice in a particular specialization of medicine. It is involved in designing, implementing and evaluating both population-based and patient-specific programs of care. There are five principal steps involved in the process of nursing, which include assessment, diagnosis, outcomes, implementation and planning. The process of assessment is concerned with analyzing a patient on the basis of in-depth physiological, economic, social and lifestyle factors. The diagnosis involves a thorough and careful examination of a patient's physical symptoms and behavior. Following this, realistic goals are set for the recovery of patients based on prior experience. It is followed by an implementation of the care plan and recording the progress of a patient. Evaluation is the final step that seeks to investigate the effectiveness of the care plan and examine the response of a patient. This book provides comprehensive insights into the field of clinical nursing. It consists of contributions made by international experts. Researchers and students in this field will be assisted by this book.

Neurological disorders refer to the type of disorders that affect the brain, nerves and spinal cord. Such disorders may lead to a variety of symptoms that are caused by structural, electrical or biochemical abnormalities in any part of the nervous system. The signs and symptoms of neurological disorders include muscle weakness, loss of sensation, confusion, altered levels of consciousness, paralysis, poor coordination, seizures and pain. Some common types of neurological disorders are multiple sclerosis (MS), migraines, Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease and epilepsy. Biomarkers offer a potent and dynamic approach to study different neurological diseases and have applications in screening, observational and analytic epidemiology, randomized clinical trials, diagnosis, and prognosis of neurological disorders. This book explores all the important aspects of clinical biomarkers used in neurological disorders. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. The book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area of study as well as for experts.

The nervous system is the primary mechanism for regulating and controlling the actions as well as communicating the sensory information within the body. It consists of the spinal cord, brain and a complex network of nerves. All mental activities such as memory, thought and learning are centered on the nervous system. This system relays messages between the body and the brain. The nervous system is divided into two parts which include the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The spinal cord and brain make up the CNS whereas the autonomic and somatic nervous systems make up the PNS. The majority of multicellular organisms have nervous systems but their complexity varies substantially. This book explores all the important aspects of nervous system from a molecular biological perspective. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area of study as well as for experts. Different approaches, evaluations, and advanced studies on this topic have been included in this book.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a form of demyelinating disease that affects the central nervous system (CNS). A patient with this disease can experience neurological symptoms such as autonomic, visual, motor and sensory problems. Some common symptoms associated with MS are ataxia, nystagmus, muscle spasms, problems with speech or swallowing, optic neuritis, pain and Uhthoff's phenomenon. The three prominent features of multiple sclerosis are formation of lesions in the CNS, inflammation, and the destruction of myelin sheaths of neurons and the blood-brain barrier (BBB). These characteristics coordinate in a complex manner to induce the breakdown of nerve tissues. The clinical assessment or diagnosis of multiple sclerosis is based on differential diagnosis, a method to rule out other conditions that might generate similar signs and symptoms. There are certain treatments available for managing multiple sclerosis which include medications that modify the progression of MS. These medications can be in the form of injectable medications, oral medications and infusion medications. This book contains some path-breaking studies related to the assessment and treatment of multiple sclerosis. It will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) refers to a progressive brain disease, which gradually destroys thinking skills and memory, as well as the capacity to perform even basic tasks. It is one of the leading causes of progressive dementia. There are several factors that contribute to the development of AD, but the most significant risk factor is aging. Intracellular neurofibrillary tangles and extracellular aggregates of amyloid β (Aβ) plaques made up of hyperphosphorylated τ-protein in limbic and cortical parts of the human brain have been linked to its pathogenesis. The biomarkers of AD are neurochemical indicators, which are utilized to determine the presence or risk of the disease. One of the well-recognized biomarkers of AD is amyloid beta (Aβ), which can be utilized to diagnose AD at an early stage in addition to tracking the progression of the disease. There is currently no cure for this disease and existing treatments provide only minor symptomatic relief, and are therefore considered palliative. This book contains some path-breaking studies related to Alzheimer's disease. It attempts to examine the risk factors, pathogenesis, biomarkers and potential treatment strategies related to Alzheimer's disease. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

The kidneys are two reddish-brown bean-shaped organs present on the left and right sides in the retroperitoneal space. Nephrology is the area of medical science which studies kidneys and the diseases related to it. Onconephrology is a nephrology subspecialty that focuses on kidney related complications in cancer patients. Cancer can affect the kidneys in two ways: by infiltration of a tumor from other body part into a kidney or by creation of nephrotoxic chemicals. With the emergence of novel targeted therapeutic medicines and intense chemotherapy regimens, different types of nephrotoxicity have increased. Kidney injury in cancer patients can potentially be caused as a side effect of cancer treatment. Such cancer patients have reduced renal function. Clinical trials have shown that cancer patients with underlying chronic kidney disease (CKD) have worse cancer outcomes as compared to patients that do not have CKD. This book is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex advancements in the field of onconephrology. It contains some path-breaking studies on the diagnosis and treatment strategies within this field. This book is a resource guide for experts as well as students.

Hemodialysis is a machine-aided process that purifies blood for people suffering from acute kidney disease. It is one of the three types of renal replacement therapies. A person requires dialysis if their kidneys are not able to remove the wastes and fluids from their bloodstream. Dialysis utilizes a dialysis machine and a specific filter known as an artificial kidney to filter creatinine, urea, potassium and free water from the blood in the same way as the kidneys work in healthy conditions. There are three major types of hemodialysis: conventional hemodialysis, daily hemodialysis and nocturnal hemodialysis. This process aids in controlling the blood pressure and maintaining essential minerals and fluids in the blood. Some of the prominent complications associated with hemodialysis include fluid shifts, bacterial infections, venous needle dislodgement, anti-coagulation-related issues, cardiovascular issues, electrolyte imbalances and vitamin deficiency. This book outlines the processes and uses of hemodialysis in detail. It consists of contributions made by international experts. This book will provide comprehensive knowledge to the readers.

Phage therapy refers to the therapeutic usage of bacteriophages to treat and manage pathogenic bacterial infections. Bacteriophages are a type of virus, which attaches to the bacterial cells and injects their genome in the cells. The viral genome replaces the bacterial genome and stops the bacterial infection from spreading. The bacterial cell responsible for causing the infection is not able to reproduce and new phages are generated as a result. Phages are selective towards those bacterial strains against which they are effective. They are commonly bacterium-specific, which makes it important to get a swab and culture it before initiating a treatment. Phages can also be applied topically or orally on the infected wounds, can be spread on the surface or can be utilized while surgical procedures are underway. This book provides significant information to help develop a good understanding of phage therapy. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. The extensive content of this book provides the readers with a thorough understanding of the subject.

The immune system refers to the network of biological processes that protect an organism from diseases. It recognizes and reacts to a wide range of pathogens including cancer cells, viruses and parasitic worms. The immune system is divided into two main subsystems, namely, the adaptive immune system and the innate immune system. The adaptive immune system recognizes the unique components of individual pathogens, whereas innate immune system recognizes the components shared by all pathogens. Antigens are the type of substances that are identified by the immune system and can subsequently trigger an immune response. A dysfunctional immune system can lead to cancer, autoimmune diseases, and inflammatory diseases. Immunodeficiency is caused when the immune system is not active, which leads to persistent and potentially fatal infections. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about immuno systems biology. It will prove to be immensely beneficial to students and researchers in this area of study.

Immunodeficiency refers to a condition in which the immune system's ability to fight infections is weakened or missing. The majority of cases occur because of extrinsic factors, which impact the patient's immune system, such as nutrition and HIV infection. Primary immunodeficiency (PID) is a disease in which a portion of the body's immune system is absent, or is not able to function properly. A condition will be considered PID if the cause of immune deficiency is not secondary in nature, such as a condition caused due to drug treatment or other disease. The diagnosis of PID includes evaluation of immunoglobulin levels and a full blood cell count. The treatment of these diseases relies on the severity of the abnormality. Majority of the treatments are palliative and passive, which can be categorized into two modalities, which include boosting the immune system and managing infections. This book contains a detailed explanation of the various diagnostic and management techniques associated with primary immunodeficiency diseases. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by it.