Bøger udgivet af Rachnayt2

Acute pain and chronic pain are conditions affecting millions of people worldwide. Acute pain is a normal physiological response associated with tissue damage that lasts upward of three to six months (Carr & Goudas, 1999). It is short duration and gradually resolves as the injured tissue heals. Examples of acute pain include a sprained ankle or small paper cut. Chronic pain is any pain that persists after an injury has healed, lasts longer than three to six months; can become worse over time; and can reoccur intermittently (Carr & Goudas, 1999). Examples of conditions that cause chronic pain are constant migraines, arthritis, and fibromyalgia. Chronic pain is a major health problem and one of the most common reasons people seek medical care (Johannes, Le, Zhou, Johnston & Dworkin, 2010), and is prevalent among one-third of the U.S. adult population. Furthermore, studies have shown that the prevalence of chronic pain is higher for females than males, that pain increases with age, and that lower socioeconomic status (SES) is typically associated with more pain (Johannes et al., 2010).

Social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954) suggests that individuals determine their worth and status in different areas of their lives based upon how they compare with 9 others. Positive and negative comparisons and self-evaluations can lead to individuals experiencing themselves either positively or negatively. Festinger was interested in the role and impact of social comparisons made with peers in social groups (Festinger, 1954; Buunk & Gibbons, 2007). Since then, over the past 20 years, studies have drawn from social comparison theory to understand the impact of exposure to different media platforms on psychological outcomes (Heinberg & Thompson, 1999). Studies have considered different media types as additional platforms for comparison, suggesting that TV exposure, advertising and magazines all allow opportunity for social comparison processes and related impacts (All Party Parliamentary Group, 2012; Heinberg & Thompson, 1999; Cattarin, Thompson, Thomas & Williams, 2000; Bessenhoff, 2006). Studies exploring the impact of these platforms have suggested that where there is negative social comparison with idealised content and images, individuals can experience negative impacts such as lower mood and self-esteem, increased anxiety and decreased body image satisfaction (Heinberg & Thompson, 1999; Cattarin et al., 2000; Tiggemann & McGill, 2004; Bessenhoff, 2006). Interventions have attempted to mitigate the impact of social comparison via different media platforms. For example, media literacy interventions introduced in schools have aimed to improve body image (All Party Parliamentary Group, 2012). These have encouraged individuals to critically evaluate images shown in the media to reduce the impacts of comparison (Alleva, Sheeran, Webb, Martijn & Miles, 2015)

The population o f college students is unique in the sense that many developmental transitions are occurring. Balk (2001) maintains that establishing independent lives, fonning intimate, long term relationships, and developing an identity tliat is stable and focused are all developmental transhions and challenges that college students encounter. An individual's personality is thought to play a large role in how he responds to different situations. Student's responsibili{y is the key to all development and learning. Research has demonstrated that college outcomes ai-e tied to the effort that students put into their work and the degree to which they ai'e involved with their studies and campus life. At the same time, irresponsible students diminish their collective academic life. Within an individual classroom, the behavior of even a few highly irresponsible students or, worse, a large number o f passive, disaffected students can drag a class down to its lowest common denominator. For an institution, the erosion o f an academic ethos can lead to a culture that is 4 stagnant, divisive, and anti-intellectual.

The modem world is in need for people with a complex identity who are intellectually autonomous and prepared to cope with uncertainty; who are able to tolerate ambiguity and not be driven by fear into a rigid, single solution approach to problems; who are rational, foresightful and look for facts; who can draw inferences and can control their behaviour in the light o f foreseen consequences; who are altruistic and enjoy doing for others; and who understands social forces and trends (Havighurst, 1971). There is no other word, other than COMPETENCY, to encompass all these attributes. Thus, the attainment o f competencies is an important aspect in an individual's life. Every individual is eager to gain new knowledge and skills, not only because the rapidly developing society demands o f it, but also because it is a response to an inner urge for the expression o f the need for order, understanding, and predictability, one o f the most important psychosocial needs, with regard to the happenings in the external world. This also results in the development o f the drive to challenge oneself, to broaden one's horizons and to realize one's goals.

Self-esteem isn't everything; it's just that there's nothing without it. The victory of women, organized and unorganized, to be able to command their space by the virtue of their decision-making power over the body, career, relations and life has been exhausting in history. The claim of their due has been achieved primarily through access to Education as the starting point. Education is the bedrock of the country's progress, cornerstone of development and the most potential tool to overcome poverty and deprivation because it empowers the other, so called better half of the population that has been systematically languishing in the shackles of well-oiled patriarchy. Girls 'education is a strategic development priority as it equips girls to be better suited to the needs of the dynamic world. India has always rolled out ambitious plans to achieve ever elusive cent percent enrolment with a dedicated focus on girl child education and empowerment. Much still is left to be done as millions of girls and women at the margins still face grave discrimination while many women have broken stereotypes and made a niche for themselves in the male dominated world.

The development, advancement and progress of any society to a large extend depends upon the preparedness of its members for tackling the demands of life. It is crucial to the future of any society that its every forthcoming generation becomes progressively and constructively more effective citizens. Children are like the clay in a potter's hands. Just as a potter gives a desired shape to the clay in his hands, so do children become what their parents and teachers make them. This is primarily the reason why the early growing years in an individual's life are considered as the most crucial period which lay the foundation for the development of their nature, personality and the individual self

Children are considered exceptional, when they have some characteristics that deviate from the normal or average child. Exceptional children deviate from the average children to the extent that they are unable to receive classroom instruction in regular schools. The word 'exceptional' conveys different meanings to different people. Some use it to refer to a bright child or a child with unusual talent. Others use it to refer to any typical or deviant child. Exceptional children are classified into various categories for the purpose of placement and educational care. The present investigation has given emphasis to two categories, viz., emotionally disturbed children and socially disadvantaged children, which come under the category of exceptional children. These children need parental and family support.

INTRODUCTION 1.1. GANDHI AND HIS LIFE Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born the youngest and fourth child of his father on October 2 nd , 1869 at Porbandar, Gujrat. Mahatma Gandhi is known widely throughout India as Bapu (the father of the nation). The early life of Mahatma Gandhi provides information about his activities, and what he did, as a teenager, and why he did that. For every reader, his early life provides a broad background. We can find the roots here of his views and actions which were responsible for his becoming a Mahatma: The children not only reflect the appearance, but also them hereditary qualities from the parents. Certainly, the place of the environment is important but the base on which the child starts his life, he received it from his ancestors.1 To understand Mahatma Gandhi's life philosophy well, it would be necessary to know a little about the family and the soil where he was born. It is also necessary to become acquainted with the many experiences of his life in Asia, Africa, and Europe, all of which gradually transformed him from 'Mohan' to 'Mahatma'. Throughout his life to put into practice the ideals, which he deemed to be the highest. He tried to practice whatever he preached. He was not only a devoted worker but a marvelous thinker as well. He was a great reformer. He was a great spiritual man. Gandhi is usually referred to as Mahatma Gandhi, all across the globe, it's because Mahatma word is made up of two words maha and Atman that means the supreme soul. He was a great soul. He was a saint. I think a saint is a person who considered him 'Dharma' before everything else. According to a person's Dharma; he should always take a path while leading to a greater good. He should be kind-hearted and always helpful to others. He was a great patriot and a great leader,

INTRODUCTION The Buddha of the present historical period is known as the Buddha Sakyamuni. Buddhism is a system of beliefs and practices considered by most to be a religion and are based on the teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as " The Buddhd' (the Awakened One). He lived and taught in the northeastern region of the Indian subcontinent and likely died around 400 BCE.^ Buddha is living beings and living beings are the Buddha, he became really delighted. After that, he told everyone to call him 'Buddha. 'Don't call me by my name; just call me Buddha, because living beings are Buddhas. Then someone said to him, 'The Buddha is kind. In his heart there is compassion for all living beings. He doesn't get angry or afflicted. If you were a Buddha, you would not have a temper or any afflictions. Because you still have a temper and afflictions, you still are an ordinary living being,

Introduction Democracy is the dominating metaphor of twenty first century governance, especially after the dissolution of the Soviet Block. The domination is so well entrenched that today's governance, irrespective of the region of the globe, can only be significantly thought, philosophised and articulated in that metaphor. However, there is no one universal prescription of democracy. The regions of the globe with their different cultures, problems, requirements and levels of development display differences in implementation of democracy. Derrida characteristically, to explain the differences of implementation, insists on democracy being a singularity. The differences in the implementation or models of democracy have emerged and the concept therefore, while dominating is at the same time under scathing scrutiny with different articulations emerging. The thesis therefore looks at various contemporary articulations of democracy in an attempt to analyse and critique its emerging concepts. However, it was felt that overall theoretical approach and historical background of democracy be introduced to get a clear perspective on the topic. It is also in fitness of things to discuss the reasons for the ascribed importance of democratic theory in contemporary politics across the globe. Democracy in practice has explicated different models of good governance, varying from country to country and moving of non-democratic countries to democratic political governance systems. Before we talk about democratic governance and any study of democratization, it will help to get acquainted with the concept of democracy, including its history, and the minimum conditions that depict a democratic government. The earliest use of the idea of democracy arises from the Greek word 'Demokratia', to the French word 'Democratie' leading to the English word 'democracy', has been used with different objectives as political regimes. Etymologically the Greek word 'Demokratia' can be traced from the root words 'Demos' which means 'people' and the word 'Kratos or Xratos', which means 'rule', therefore 'demokratie' signifies the,

INTRODUCTION : Women - the half of the world's population - play an important role along with men in creating a better life of family. The status of women in a society is the true index of its cultural, social, religious and spiritual levels. It is one of the most important criteria for estimating with precision the degree of civilization attained by a particular society. As women become empowered they become change agents who influence decisions and actions, which affect organisations, institutions and communities. But after six and half decades of our independence, there is continued inequality and vulnerability of women in all sectors - economic, social, political education, healthcare, nutrition and legal. As women are oppressed in all spheres of life, they need to be empowered in all walks of life. The increasing level of gang-rapes in society has raised a new question of men-domination and cruelty with women and girls child. The novel laureate Amartya Sen has emphasized, ¿Indeed the empowerments of women is one of the central issues in the process of development for many countries in the world today.¿ Actually, empowerment is the process by which the powerless gain greater control over the circumstances of their lives. It includes both,

PREGNANCY - AN OVERVIEW: Pregnancy is a transitional period of a women's life. The miracle of pregnancy and the transformation of woman into mother have engrossed individuals from ancient history to the present. However, the health and wellness experts have started to highlight the psychological aspects of pregnancy that women go through during their journey of motherhood in the last previous century only. Pregnancy is the stage of development of one/more than one embryo or fetus in the uterus. An 'embryo' is the emerging descendants during the initial two months following conception, and afterward the term 'fetus' is used till the birth of the unborn child. A numerous pregnancy includes more than one embryo in a solitary pregnancy, for example, with twins. Usually childbirth occurs around 38 weeks after conception. Conception can be occurred through the process of sexual intercourse or with the help of reproductive technology. One of the scientific terms used for the condition of pregnancy is 'gravidity' means 'heavy' in Latin and an expected women is termed as 'gravida'. In medical science, a lady who has never been pregnant is alluded as a 'nulligravida'; a lady who is (or has been) pregnant for the first time is known as a 'primigravida'. 'Multigravida' or multiparous are the terms used for a lady with subsequent pregnancies. The most common way to check the beginning of pregnancy is the day one of the woman's LNMP or last normal menstrual period. The fetal age is also count from that date of LNMP. However this count of fetal age changes when the pregnancy or fertilization is occurred with the assistance of reproductive technology like invitro fertilization. Fertilization is the process where the egg cell (female reproductive cell) fuses with spermatozoon, the male reproductive cell to form a zygote. In natural conditions this fusion occurs following the sexual intercourse and thus brings natural pregnancy. It can also be occurred by intrauterine insemination (IUI) and in vitro fertilization. In natural pregnancy,