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The field of engineering which deals with the activities related to the production of hydrocarbons is known as petroleum engineering. Such hydrocarbons include crude oil or natural gas. Its main goal is to maximize the economic recovery of hydrocarbons from subsurface reservoirs. Petroleum engineering estimates the recoverable volume of the hydrocarbon resource with the help of a thorough understanding of the physical behavior of the resources. Such resources are found at very high pressure within the porous rocks. Petroleum engineering assimilates the knowledge of various other fields such as geophysics, petroleum geology, drilling, economics, formation evaluation, reservoir engineering, artificial lift systems, well engineering and petroleum production engineering. This textbook aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of petroleum engineering. Most of the topics introduced in this book cover new techniques and the applications of this field. It is appropriate for those seeking detailed information in this area.

The kinetic energy of the wind is referred to as wind energy. It is used to provide wind power and involves the usage of air flow to generate electricity with the help of wind turbines. There are two types of modern wind turbines, namely horizontal axis and vertical axis wind turbine. The size of the wind turbines varies on the basis of their usage. Wind is a variable source of energy and can be used in conjunction with other forms of power generation such as hydropower and solar power to provide continuous power. There are various factors which determine the amount of energy which a turbine can harness from the wind. A few of these are wind speed, air density and swept area. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide an in-depth knowledge about the concepts and applications of wind energy. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts. Coherent flow of topics, student-friendly language and extensive use of examples make this book an invaluable source of knowledge.

The Earth's surface is affected by a combination of surface and geologic processes that shape landscapes and coastal geography. Such processes cause tectonic uplift and subsidence. The varied topographies of the Earth reflect the intersection of surface and subsurface action. The field concerned with the study of the origin and evolution of such bathymetric and topographic features of the Earth is known as geomorphology. Surface processes, such as wind, waves, groundwater movement, glacial action, volcanism, tectonism, etc. are responsible for most of Earth's topographic features. The history of Earth's landscapes, their shape and change in time are understood through a combination of physical experimentation, field observations and numerical modelling. This book brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of geomorphology. Different approaches, evaluations, methodologies and advanced studies on geomorphology have been included herein. With state-of-the-art inputs by acclaimed experts of this field, this book targets students and professionals.

Bioenergy is the energy harnessed from materials that are derived from biological sources. The primary source of bioenergy is biomass, which is an organic material that stores sunlight in the form of chemical energy. Biomass can be utilized for the production of heat and energy, and can be used as a raw material in industrial processes. Biomass fuel may include animal waste, wood and wood waste, sugarcane, crop residues, and various other by-products of agriculture, farming and animal husbandry. Crops such as corn, soybeans, willow, sorghum, jatropha, etc. are specifically grown for the production of biofuel. Biomass can also be converted into transportation fuels like biodiesel and ethanol, as well as usable forms of energy like biogas. Unlike fossil and nuclear fuels, biomass is a renewable energy source that is based on the carbon cycle. It can contribute to waste management, provide fuel security and slow down climate change. This book contains some path-breaking studies and emerging trends in bioenergy production and utilization. The topics included herein are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. This book is appropriate for students and experts seeking detailed information about the current and future perspectives of renewable energy.

The scientific field of hydrology that is concerned with the composition, dispersion and movement of snow and ice is referred to as snow hydrology. Important hydrological processes include snowfall, accumulation and melt in watershed at high altitudes and latitudes. Snow melt is useful in many areas as it supplies water to reservoirs and populations, and is also used for agricultural activities. Snow hydrology provides knowledge which is used in weather forecasting. Information of snow composition and movement is gathered through density, depth and composition readings and by using various remote sensing techniques. This book outlines the processes and applications of snow hydrology in detail. It strives to provide a fair idea about this discipline and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances within this field. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and post graduate students.

The branch of geology that deals with the scientific study of the chemistry, crystal structure and physical properties of minerals is referred to as mineralogy. It also examines mineralized artifacts. It is particularly concerned with the processes related to mineral origin and formation, geographical distribution of minerals, their classification as well as their utilization. The physical properties of minerals are classified on the basis of density, hardness, fracture, radioactivity and solubility. Some of the subdisciplines within this field are optical mineralogy, systematic mineralogy and biomineralogy. Optical mineralogy focuses on the study of minerals and rocks by measuring their optical properties. The classification and identification of minerals falls under the domain of systematic mineralogy. The book aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of mineralogy. While understanding the long-term perspectives of the topics, it makes an effort in highlighting their impact as a modern tool for the growth of the discipline. This book, with its detailed analyses and data, will prove immensely beneficial to professionals and students involved in this area at various levels.

The branch of atmospheric sciences that makes use of atmospheric chemistry and physics is known as meteorology. It focuses on weather forecasting. Meteorological studies take place at various scales such as microscale, mesoscale, synoptic scale and global scale. Important meteorological principles include boundary layer meteorology and dynamic meteorology. Boundary layer meteorology studies the processes in the layer of air that is directly above the Earth's surface. Dynamic meteorology is concerned with the fluid dynamics of the atmosphere. Some of the areas where meteorology is applied are aviation, agriculture and military. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to meteorology. Such selected concepts that redefine this field have been presented in it. The coherent flow of topics, student-friendly language and extensive use of examples make this book an invaluable source of knowledge.

Meteorology is the science which studies the atmosphere and atmospheric phenomena, and how these influence the weather. It specializes in the study of atmospheric events occurring in the troposphere and lower stratosphere. A major area of meteorology is atmospheric research or operational weather forecasting. Meteorology also explores the relationship between the atmosphere and the Earth's oceans, climates and biological life. Such research guides the assessment of the current state of the atmosphere and allows a future prediction of the climate to be developed. A number of technologies aid in examining, describing, modeling and predicting weather systems with a high degree of accuracy and efficiency. Radar and satellites are two such technologies that are of utmost importance to meteorological studies. This book discusses the fundamentals as well as modern approaches of meteorology. It traces the progress of this field and highlights some of its key concepts and applications. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.

Hydrometeorology is a branch of meteorology which focuses on the problems related to water cycle and water budget as well as the rainfall statistics. It also encompasses climatology, hydrology, cloud physics and weather forecasting. Primarily, it is concerned with mitigating the risks of flood and other hydrological threats. It utilizes the data recorded regarding various hydrological processes and observes the risks of natural disasters such as drought, desertification and cyclones on the basis of that data. It also focuses on the transfer of water and energy between the land surface and the lower atmosphere. Hydrometeorology also focuses on water quality and supply. This book outlines the processes and applications of hydrometeorology in detail. It elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to this field. Through this book, we attempt to further enlighten the readers about the new concepts in this area.

The study of the Earth's atmosphere and the related physical processes falls under the domain of atmospheric science. It can be divided into meteorology, aeronomy and climatology. The discipline of meteorology includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics, and primarily focuses on weather forecasting. Climatology studies the changes and variations occurring in the atmosphere. Aeronomy studies the upper layers of the atmosphere with a major focus upon dissociation and ionization. Atmospheric science also includes planetary science, and the study of the atmosphere of planets and natural satellites of the solar system. This textbook is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the theory and practice of this field. The various sub-fields of atmospheric science along with technological progress that have future implications are glanced at in this book. It is a complete source of knowledge on the present status of this important discipline.

Chinese herbal medicine is a branch of traditional medicine that is based on the ancient Chinese medical practices. It primarily focuses on the utilization of the elements and extracts derived from plants. It also uses human, animal and mineral products that are sometimes poisonous. Various methods are used for the classification of Chinese herbal medicine. They include the four natures, the five flavors, the meridians and the specific function. The most common herbs used in Chinese herbal medicine are ginseng, ginkgo, mushrooms, wolfberry, astragalus, salvia, cinnamon, licorice, bupleurum and atractylodes. Chinese herbal medicines are usually prepared by decoction in which the herbal materials such as stems, roots, rhizomes and bark are boiled to dissolve their chemicals. This book discusses the fundamentals as well as modern approaches of Chinese herbal medicine. It will also provide interesting topics for research which interested readers can take up. It is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.

Chinese medicine includes various forms of herbal medicine, acupuncture, exercise and dietary therapy. It utilizes plant elements as well as animal, human and mineral products. One of the basic principles of Chinese medicine is the use of the body's vital energy. It is believed that the body's energy circulates through channels called meridians and it has branches connected to bodily organs and functions. Chinese medicine considers diseases as imbalance in the interactions of yin, yang, qi, meridians, etc. The disharmony in these interactions is diagnosed by measuring the pulse, inspecting the skin, tongue, eyes and observing the eating and sleeping habits of a person. This book traces the progress of this field and highlights some of its key concepts and applications. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Biochemistry is a sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology that delves into the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. It deals with the structures, interactions and functions of biological macromolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. It is divided into metabolism, molecular genetics and protein science. Biochemistry and molecular biology are closely related to each other. The field of study that is concerned with the molecular basis of biological activity between biomolecules in the various systems of a cell is called molecular biology. This includes the interactions between RNA, DNA, proteins and their biosynthesis, as well as the regulation of these interactions. Microarrays, gel electrophoresis, macromolecule blotting and probing, polymerase chain reaction and molecular cloning are some of the techniques used in this field. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the principles and techniques of biochemistry and molecular biology. From theories to research to practical applications, case studies related to all contemporary topics of relevance have been included in it. This book includes contributions of experts and scientists, which will provide the readers with innovative insights into these fields.

Evolution is at the core of all biological studies. Biology can be divided at the level of biological organization, taxonomic group and manner of approach. Many of these fields can be integrated with evolutionary biology to create the subfields of evolutionary developmental biology and evolutionary ecology. The merger between applied sciences and biological sciences has resulted in specialized domains such as evolutionary robotics, evolutionary engineering, architecture, algorithms and economics. It is now possible to understand the effects of each gene and their contribution to complex evolutionary phenomena of speciation and adaptation because of the better understanding of their molecular basis. The interdependence of individual genes and the changes that can occur in each of these, such as gene mutation, gene duplication or genome duplication can also be better understood now. This book covers in detail some existing theories and innovative concepts revolving around evolution. Different approaches, evaluations, methodologies and advanced studies have been included herein. Students, researchers, experts and all associated with evolutionary biology will benefit alike from this book.

Microbiology is the study of microorganisms whether unicellular, multicellular or acellular, along with their function, structure and classification. The branches of microbiology are either classified into pure and applied sciences or divided according to taxonomy. Bacteriology, virology, mycology and parasitology are the sub-disciplines of microbiology. Bacteriology studies various aspects of the ecology, biochemistry, morphology and genetics of bacteria. Virology is the study of viruses, their structures, interactions with host organisms, the techniques to isolate and culture them, classification and evolution, their use in research and therapy, etc. Mycology is associated with the study of fungi and encompasses the study of their biochemical and genetic properties, taxonomy, their uses and the threats that they pose. The study of parasites, their host and the relationship between them is called parasitology. This book contains some path-breaking studies in the field of microbiology. The various advancements in this area of study are glanced at and their applications, as well as ramifications, are looked at in detail. This book, with its detailed analyses and data, will prove immensely beneficial to professionals and students involved in this area at various levels.

Biotechnology is a field of biology that involves living systems and organisms for the production and development of products. It is an interdisciplinary field which incorporates principles from molecular biology, biomedical engineering and biomanufacturing. Biotechnology applies concepts from numerous fields such as agriculture, food production, medicine, genomics and immunology. Some of the important sub-disciplines within this field are blue biotechnology, bioinformatics, green biotechnology and red biotechnology. The applications of biotechnology are categorized into four areas, namely, health care, crop production, industrial uses of crops, and production of other products such as biodegradable plastics and biofuels. This textbook is a compilation of chapters that discuss the most vital concepts in the field of biotechnology. The various sub-fields of biotechnology along with technological progress that have future implications are glanced at in it. Through this book, we attempt to further enlighten the readers about the new concepts in this field.

Bacteria are prokaryotic microorganisms which are generally a few micrometers in length. The biological branch which deals with the studies related to the morphology, genetics, ecology and biochemistry of bacteria is referred to as bacteriology. It is a sub-field of microbiology that is particularly concerned with the identification, classification and characterization of bacterial species. Bacteriology is applied in the development of vaccines for various diseases such as diphtheria and tetanus. There are numerous areas where principles of bacteriology are applied and studied such as agriculture, marine biology and biotechnology. This book is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the theory and practice of bacteriology. The topics included herein on this topic are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. This book aims to serve as a resource guide for students and experts alike and contribute to the growth of the discipline.

Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes occurring within and relating to living organisms. It is a sub-discipline of biology and chemistry. Biochemistry can be divided into three fields-molecular genetics, protein science and metabolism. It focuses on understanding how biological molecules give rise to the process happening within and between living cells. It also deals with the structures, functions and interactions of biological macromolecules such as proteins, nucleic acid, carbohydrates and lipids. These macromolecules provide the structure of cells and perform many of the functions, associated with life. Medicine, nutrition and agriculture are some areas where the researches of biochemistry are applied. The book studies, analyzes and upholds the pillars of biochemistry and its utmost significance in modern times. The various advancements in this field are glanced at and their applications as well as ramifications are looked at in detail. This book is a vital tool for all researching or studying biochemistry as it gives incredible insights into emerging trends and concepts.

Bioengineering or biological engineering is the application of the principles of engineering and biology to create tangible, usable and economically viable products. Bioengineering can be applied to systems at molecular, cellular, tissue-based, organismal and entire ecosystem levels. The design of bioengineering products is often inspired from biological systems or based on their modification and control. It is vital for the development of medical diagnostic equipment and medical imaging technology, prosthetics, renewable bioenergy, biocompatible materials, ecological engineering, etc. It can also be used in different areas of engineering, biotechnology, biocatalysis and bioprocess engineering. Some of the major branches of bioengineering are biomedical engineering, biological systems engineering, environmental health engineering, biorobotics, biomimetics, etc. The aim of this book is to present researches that have transformed the discipline of bioengineering and aided its advancement. From theories to research to practical applications, case studies related to all contemporary topics of relevance to this field have been included herein. Through this book, we attempt to further enlighten the readers about the new concepts in this field.

Biotechnology is a broad area of biology that involves the use of organisms and living systems to make or develop products for a specific use. Biotechnology branches out into green biotechnology, blue biotechnology, bioinformatics, red biotechnology, white biotechnology, industrial biotechnology, etc. The modern-day biotechnology includes new and diverse sciences such as applied immunology, genomics, development of pharmaceutical therapies and recombinant genes. Its applications are prominent in four major industries - crop production and agriculture, non-food uses of crops and other products, health care, and environmental uses. It strives to provide a fair idea about this discipline and to help develop a better understanding of the latest advances within this field. As this discipline is emerging at a rapid pace, the contents of it will help the readers understand the modern concepts and applications of the subject. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to biotechnology.

Horse health management is one of the vital processes required for optimal health and long life of horses. Horse health management involves processes like veterinary care, leg care and bandaging, feeding, grooming, hoof care and shoeing, etc. Veterinary care is an integral part of horse health management as horses are affected by many disorders such as colic, laminitis, and internal parasites. There are many infectious diseases in horses that can be cured by regular vaccination. Rabies, tetanus and equine encephalitis are the common vaccines given to horses depending on the area they live in. Leg care and bandaging is another vital process in horse health management which involves routine observation for lacerations or swelling. Many riders wrap the horse's legs with protective boots or bandages to prevent injury in horses while working or exercising. Leg wraps are useful in preventing injury or for treating horses with leg injuries. This book unravels the recent studies in the field of horse health management. It discusses the fundamentals as well as modern approaches of horse health management. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

The domesticated animals that are raised in specific agricultural settings are known as livestock. They are used for various purposes such as labor and production of commodities including meat, milk, leather, fur and wool. Livestock is a broad term that can refer to any species of animals that are kept by humans for domestic or commercial purposes. It includes domestic animals like camel and cattle as well as semi-domestic animals such as fallow deer and reindeer. Livestock production plays a vital role both economically and culturally in various rural communities. It is necessary to provide them with good husbandry, appropriate feeding and hygiene to get maximized production of commodities. They must be checked regularly by veterinarians. This book provides comprehensive insights into livestock animals. It provides significant information of this discipline to help develop a good understanding of it. This book will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

The domesticated birds that are kept by humans for their feathers, meat or eggs are collectively referred to as poultry. Some of the birds which fall under this category are chickens, geese, ducks and turkeys. Poultry science is a specialization of animal science which is concerned with finding improved and more effective ways of raising poultry that produce healthy eggs and meat. It works to improve poultry production and food safety. It also studies the different diseases which can affect poultry production, their prevention and the ways in which they can be controlled. This book provides comprehensive insights into the field of poultry science. Different approaches, evaluations and concepts related to this field have been included herein. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred from the male part of a plant to the female part. This enables fertilization and the production of seeds. Usually, pollination occurs within a species, but in cases where it occurs between two different species, a hybrid offspring is produced. Self-pollination occurs when pollen from the same plant reaches the stigma of a flower or ovule. Pollination is often aided by animals such as birds, insects and bats as well as by the wind, rain and water. Nearly 3/4th of world's supply of food is derived from plants that require pollination. The financial and ecological advantage of natural pollination by native pollinators in the case of agricultural crops can be witnessed in their improved quality and yield. However, there is a recent decline in pollinator populations owing to habitat destruction, pesticide use, climate change and parasitism or disease. Pollination management is thus vital to modern agriculture. Efforts to protect and enhance pollinators, and add new pollinators to monoculture situations, as in commercial fruit orchards, are important for better agricultural productivity. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to utilizing pollination for improving the health of agricultural ecosystems. It consists of contributions made by international experts on pollination and pollinating agents. It will help new researchers by foregrounding their knowledge in this area.

Permaculture refers to the conscious maintenance and design of agriculturally productive ecosystems that have the stability, diversity and resilience of natural ecosystems. There are various branches of permaculture such as environmental design, ecological engineering, regenerative design and ecological design. It also focuses on integrated water resource management that helps in the development of sustainable architecture. Some of the common practices of permaculture are hügelkultur, natural building, rainwater harvesting, sheet mulching, grazing, Keyline design and fruit tree management. The major principles of permaculture are care for the Earth, and the people. This book aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of this field. The topics herein on this field are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. Through this book, we attempt to further enlighten the readers about the new concepts in this field.

Organic farming is an alternative agricultural system that focuses on the use of fertilizers that are organic in nature such as compost manure, bone meal and green manure. It advocates the use of farming techniques such as crop rotation and companion planting. Organic farming also promotes biological pest control, fostering of insect predators and mixed cropping. It particularly focuses on the use of naturally occurring substances and strictly eliminating the use of synthetic substances. The farming methods within organic farming use a combination of ecology and modern technology along with traditional farming practices which are based on naturally occurring biological processes. This book studies, analyses and upholds the pillars of organic farming and its utmost significance in modern times. It brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of this field. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Crops are grown and harvested in agriculture for subsistence and profit. Some of the crops that contribute to human food supply are rice, wheat, sugarcane, corn, etc. The yield of a crop is measured per unit area of the land cultivated, and the seed generation of the crop. To improve yield, measures like the use of hybrid seeds, agrichemicals, genetically engineered crops and high mechanization are adopted. Intensive crop farming or the industrial production of crops involves innovation in agricultural machinery, genetic engineering technology, modern farming methods, etc. Food crops are also being designed with better nutrient profiles, quality and resistance to diseases, pests, spoilage, environmental conditions and chemical treatments with the aid of genetic engineering. Such genetically modified crops are being widely used by farmers, due to their high yields and reduction in the use of pesticides. This book discusses the fundamentals as well as modern approaches of crop production. It strives to provide a fair idea about crop growth, yield and quality, and help develop a better understanding of the latest advances within this field. For all readers who are interested in agriculture, the case studies included in this book will serve as an excellent guide to develop a comprehensive understanding.

The science and practice of protecting crops from diseases, weeds and other vertebrate and invertebrate pests, is known as crop protection. There are various methods and approaches to plant protection. Pesticides are also widely used for crop protection. It includes insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. Biological pest control is a method of protecting pests by using other organisms. These include cover crops, beetle banks and trap crops. Barrier-based approaches such as bird netting and agrotextiles are also used. Several other techniques include bird scarers, genetic modification and plant breeding. Crop management aims to improve the growth, development as well as yield of crops. Crop management practices vary based on the type of crops. The biological characteristics of the crops are the main factors behind timing, combination and sequence of the practices used in its management. This book is a compilation of chapters that discuss the most vital concepts in the field of crop protection and management. The topics included herein are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. This book is a complete source of knowledge on the present status of this important field.

The application of water to plants at necessary intervals is known as irrigation. It is used to ensure the proper growth of agricultural crops and maintain landscapes. Irrigation plays a key role in re-vegetating disturbed soils in dry areas and during the times of less than average rainfall. Irrigation systems are also used for dust suppression, cooling livestock and protecting crops from frost. Some of the common methods of irrigation are surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation and subsurface irrigation. There are various sources of water which can be used for irrigation such as groundwater, surface water and treated wastewater. The topics covered in this extensive textbook deal with the core aspects of irrigation. It is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex methods in this field. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

The branch of biology which deals with the study of immune systems in different organisms is known as immunology. The study of different aspects of immune systems in animals is known as veterinary immunology. It is a subfield of biomedical science, which is also related to veterinary science and zoology. The health and working of the immune systems in animals along with the malfunctions and disorders are some of the areas which are studied within this field. The processes through which vaccines prevent diseases as well as the adverse reactions which are sometimes caused by vaccines are also dealt within this field. This book provides comprehensive insights into the field of veterinary immunology. It presents researches and studies performed by experts across the globe. This textbook is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.