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Virology is a sub-field of microbiology that deals with the study of viruses, their structure, properties, classification and evolution. It also studies the interactions of viruses with host cells, their modes of infecting hosts for reproduction, the diseases that they cause and their use in therapy and research, among others. Viral classification is an important area of virology. Plant viruses, bacteriophages, fungal viruses and animal viruses are the classifications of viruses based on the host cells that they infect. Humans can only be infected by viruses from other vertebrates. These viruses cause many important infectious diseases such as dengue fever, AIDS, polio, hepatitis, influenza, common cold, rabies, etc. Viruses such as human papillomavirus, and hepatitis B and C viruses contribute to the development of cervical cancer and liver cancer respectively. Therefore, the study of virology is of immense importance in medical science. Our understanding of viruses has undergone rapid development over the past few decades. This book presents the complex subject of human virology in the most comprehensible and easy to understand language. It includes contributions of experts and scientists, which will provide innovative insights into this field.

Genetics is a field of science that is concerned with the study of genes, variation and heredity. It also involves the medical practice of diagnosing, treating and counseling patients with genetic disorders. Genetics overlaps with many other areas such as biotechnology, agriculture and medicine. Modern genetics focuses on the function and behavior of genes, gene structure and distribution from the context of cell and organism with respect to a population. Genetic processes interact with two factors - the environment and experiences of the organism. This influences the organism's behavior and development. Genetics is an upcoming field of science that has undergone rapid development over the past few decades. This book is a compilation of chapters that discuss the most vital concepts and emerging trends in the fields of plant and animal genetics. It will help the readers in keeping pace with the rapid changes in this field.

Plants are crucial for the sustainment of life on Earth. They provide the necessary oxygen and food, as well as medicine and other products. They are essential for binding and stabilizing soils, preventing soil erosion, and balancing carbon and water cycles. The branch of biology concerned with the study of plants including their structure, biochemical processes and properties is known as botany. It also encompasses plant physiology and pathology, plant classification and their interactions with the environment. The foundation of many applied sciences such as forestry, agriculture and horticulture is built on the principles and applications of botany. Modern botany is a multidisciplinary subject that integrates many different areas of science and technology. The study and investigation of plant growth and differentiation, structure, biochemistry, evolution, systematics, etc. are significant areas of research in this discipline. The field of botany has undergone rapid development over the past few decades. This book brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of this area of study. Coherent flow of topics, student-friendly language and extensive use of examples make this book an invaluable source of knowledge.

Renewable energy, also known as green energy, is obtained from renewable resources. Such natural resources include sunlight, rain, waves, geothermal heat and wind. It plays an important role in electricity generation, transportation, air and water heating or cooling, and off-grid energy services. Some of the different technologies which are used to produce renewable energy are wind turbines for converting wind power into electricity, water turbines for producing hydroelectricity and photovoltaic cells for harnessing solar energy. Various other renewable technologies, such as cellulosic ethanol, marine energy and hot-dry-rock geothermal power, are also being developed. There are numerous benefits of using renewable energy over fossil fuels such as reducing air pollution and improving public health. Different approaches, evaluations and methodologies and advanced studies on renewable energy have been included in this book. Such selected concepts that redefine this area have been presented herein. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Food engineering is an interdisciplinary field, which combines diverse aspects of microbiology, applied physical sciences, chemistry and engineering for food and related industries. It is concerned with the application of principles of agricultural engineering, mechanical engineering and chemical engineering. It is also responsible for the development of technology that is essential for the cost-effective production and commercialization of food products and services. It includes various activities such as food processing, packaging, instrumentation, ingredient manufacturing, etc. Food engineering also uses advanced monitoring and control systems to facilitate automation and flexible manufacturing of food. This textbook is compiled in such a manner, that it will provide in-depth knowledge about the theory and practice of food engineering. It studies, analyses and upholds the pillars of this discipline and its utmost significance in modern times. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

The propagation of noise that can have a harmful impact on the activities of human and animal life is known as noise pollution. Major sources of noise pollution include machines, transport and propagation systems. It can also be caused by loud music, construction and electrical generators. High levels of noise pollution can give rise to cardiovascular effects in humans and increase the incidences of coronary artery disease. Noise can also have a detrimental effect on animals. It can upset the delicate balance in predator or prey detection and avoidance, as well as interfere in the use of sound for communication. Different approaches, evaluations and methodologies and advanced studies on noise pollution have been included in this book. It covers in detail some existent theories and innovative concepts revolving around this problem. The book is appropriate for those seeking detailed information in this area.

The condition when the Earth's climate system results in new weather patterns that last from few decades to a million of years is known as climate change. It can be caused due to various reasons such as human activities, Earth's internal processes and external processes. Human activities are presently accelerating climate change through global warming. The effects of global warming include regional changes in precipitation, rising sea levels, expansion of deserts and frequent extreme weather events such as heat waves. Climate change affects food security, crop yields, etc. This book provides comprehensive insights into the issue of climate change. Different approaches, evaluations, methodologies and advanced studies on climate change have been included herein. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

The science that deals with the creation, management, and conservation of forests, woodlands and other related resources for the benefit of humans and the environment is referred to as forestry. It is generally practiced in plantations and natural stands. It is an interdisciplinary field that shares its branches with various biological, physical, political, social and managerial sciences. Forestry deals with a diverse range of concerns related to multiple-use management. This includes the provisions of fuel wood, timber, natural water quality management, wildlife habitat and recreation. It also focuses on the protection of landscape and community, employment, biodiversity management, watershed management, erosion control, and the preservation of forests as sinks for atmospheric carbon dioxide. The topics included in this textbook on forestry are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. It aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of this field. This book aims to serve as a resource guide for students and experts alike and contribute to the growth of the discipline.

The scientific study of marine-life populations, habitat and interactions among organisms and the surrounding environment is known as marine ecology. It includes the study of their abiotic as well as biotic factors. Marine ecosystems are characterized by a high salt content. Marine ecology is involved in the study of the influence of geology, meteorology, geography, chemistry, physics and pedology of marine ecosystems. Some of the different types of marine ecosystems which are studied within this field are salt marshes, lagoons, mangroves, coral reefs and intertidal zones. It also studies the impact of human activities such as agriculture, medical research, fisheries and forestry on these ecosystems. This book explores all the important aspects of marine ecology in the present day scenario. It is a complete source of knowledge on the present status of this important field. Coherent flow of topics, student-friendly language and extensive use of examples make this book an invaluable source of knowledge.

The sub-discipline of zoology, which is concerned with the study of invertebrates is referred to as invertebrate zoology. Invertebrates are the animals that do not have a backbone. It is a diverse group of animals which includes tunicates, echinoderms, sponges, various phyla of worms, arthropods, molluscs, etc. There can be many sub-divisions of invertebrate zoology including arthopodology which includes arachnology, entomology, carcinology and myriapodology. Some of the other sub-divisions of invertebrate zoology are invertebrate paleontology, malacology, and helminthology. Invertebrate paleontology deals with the scientific study of prehistoric invertebrates by analyzing invertebrate fossils in the geological records. The topics included in this book on invertebrate zoology are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. Some of the diverse topics covered in this book address the varied branches that fall under this category. This book will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

The study of the life supporting processes in animals is known as animal physiology. It examines the regulation, integration and functioning of biological processes under various environmental conditions. The study of animal physiology is closely linked with anatomy. The study of the size, structure and shape of animals falls under the field of morphology. It is the study of the biological form and arrangement of the organs of the animals. It generally focuses on the bones, muscles, nerves and blood vessels which constitute the bodies of animals. The topics included in this book on animal physiology and morphology are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book. Coherent flow of topics, student-friendly language and extensive use of examples make it an invaluable source of knowledge.

The study and practice of diet and nutrition with the aim of improving the athletic performance of a human body is known as sports nutrition. It is mainly used in the training regimes of strength sports and endurance sports. A few strength sports which make use of this area of study are weightlifting and bodybuilding whereas cycling, swimming and rowing are a few examples of endurance sports where it is applied. Sports nutrition primarily studies the quantity along with the type of food and fluids consumed by an athlete. The consumption of organic substances such as proteins and fats as well as nutrients such as minerals and vitamins are also dealt with under this domain. The topics included in this book on sports nutrition are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. It brings forth some of the most innovative concepts and elucidates the unexplored aspects of this field. This book will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and post graduate students.

The science of interpreting the interaction of nutrients and other substances in food with respect to various processes needed to sustain life in organisms is known as nutrition. Some of the processes which are studied within this discipline in relation to food are health, maintenance, reproduction, growth and disease of an organism. The set of chemical reactions which are essential for the sustenance of life is known as metabolism. There are three major purposes of metabolism. The first purpose is the elimination of nitrogenous wastes. The second one is the conversion of food to energy for running cellular processes. The third purpose of metabolism is the conversion of food to building blocks for proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, etc. This book provides comprehensive insights into the fields of nutrition and metabolism. It consists of contributions made by international experts. Coherent flow of topics, student-friendly language and extensive use of examples make this book an invaluable source of knowledge.

The branch of science which studies the distribution of water as well as its quality and movement is known as hydrology. It is also involved in the collection and analysis of data for solving water related problems like natural disasters and wastewater treatment. Some of the different areas studied within this field are water cycle, environmental watershed sustainability and water resources. There are various sub-disciplines within hydrology such as groundwater hydrology, marine hydrology, chemical hydrology, isotope hydrology and hydrogeology. This discipline finds application in a variety of areas like in determining the water balance of a region, providing drinking water and designing bridges. The book aims to shed light on some of the unexplored aspects of hydrology. It presents this complex subject in the most comprehensible and easy to understand language. This textbook will serve as a reference to a broad spectrum of readers.

The practice of protecting wild species and their habitats is known as wildlife conservation. The primary motive of this domain is to prevent the extinction of species. Some of the factors which threaten wildlife are degradation and destruction of habitat, poaching, overexploitation, climate change and hunting. Habitat destruction refers to the decline in the number of locations where wildlife can thrive. Harvesting animals on a scale which is larger at which the species can recover causes overexploitation. Conservation of wildlife can be done through methods such as habitat conservation, conservation genetics and through government involvement. This book discusses the fundamentals as well as modern approaches of wildlife conservation and management. The topics included herein on this topic are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. This textbook is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.

The contamination of Earth's atmosphere through harmful or extreme quantities of particles, gases or biological molecules is known as air pollution. It can have various adverse effects on the health of humans such as causing diseases, allergies or in extreme cases, even death. Other living organisms such as animals and food crops can also be harmed by it. Air pollution can be caused due to both human and natural processes. A few examples of the different pollutants are carbon monoxide gas, ash from volcanoes and sulfur dioxide. Some of the alternatives which can be adopted in order to reduce air pollution are using biofuel for airplanes, using electric motor vehicles and using renewable sources of energy to generate electricity. This book covers in detail some existent theories and innovative concepts revolving around air pollution. It presents this complex problem in the most comprehensible and easy to understand language. With its detailed analyses and data, this book will prove immensely beneficial to professionals and students involved in this area at various levels.

The branch of science which studies weather conditions over a period of time is known as climatology. It is a branch of atmospheric sciences. Climatology is also involved in the study of dynamics of the weather and climate system. The time period over which these weather events are studied can stretch from a few years to millennium. There are a number of sub-disciplines within this field such as boundary-layer climatology, paleoclimatology and paleotempestology. The study of climate indices is an important part of climatology. These indices are used to represent the important elements of climate. Some of the important phenomena studied within this field are circulation patterns, heat transfer and atmospheric boundary layer. Climatology is an upcoming field of science that has undergone rapid development over the past few decades. The topics covered herein offer the readers new insights in this field. The book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.

An overflow of water which submerges land that is generally dry is known as a flood. This overflow can be from a number of water bodies such as lakes, rivers or oceans. It can also be caused from an excessive accumulation of rainwater. The impact of floods can vary, from a neighborhood or community getting affected to an entire river basin. Some of the many ways of mitigating the adverse effects of floods are forecasting, mapping and analyzing hydraulic models. Flood forecasting is a process which is involved in the prediction and estimation of the duration, magnitude and timing of flooding. Its primary aim is to prevent and reduce damage to human life, environment and property. The topics included in this book on floods and their mitigation are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book. Coherent flow of topics, student-friendly language and extensive use of examples make this book an invaluable source of knowledge.

The radiant heat and light from the sun is known as solar energy. It is harnessed using a wide variety of technologies such as photovoltaics, solar architecture, artificial photosynthesis and solar heating. These technologies are broadly classified into passive solar and active solar. This classification is done on the basis of how they capture and distribute solar energy. Passive solar technologies do not use any external mechanical or electrical devices. On the other hand, active solar systems use fans and pumps to circulate fluids or air through solar collectors. Solar energy is credited to enhance sustainability, lower the fossil fuel prices and reduce pollution. Solar energy is an upcoming field of science that has undergone rapid development over the past few decades. The various studies that are constantly contributing towards advancing technologies and evolution of this field are examined in detail. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

Hydropower is the energy derived from water that is falling or fast-running. It is a type of renewable energy. There are four types of hydropower, namely, run-of-river hydropower, storage hydropower, pumped-storage hydropower and offshore hydropower. Devices such as trompe and watermill run on hydropower. The electricity produced by hydropower is known as hydroelectricity. It can also be used to store potential energy between two reservoirs. Hydroelectric power plants, which include reservoir, are used to exploit the energy of falling water. Hydropower can be used for irrigation and operations such as carried out dock cranes, gristmills, textile mills, ore mills, etc. This book is a compilation of chapters that discuss the most vital concepts in the field of hydropower. It elucidates new techniques and their applications in a multidisciplinary approach. As this field is emerging at a rapid pace, the contents of this book will help the readers understand the modern concepts and applications of the subject.

The field of study which focuses on volcanoes, magma and lava is known as volcanology. It also deals with the geophysical, geological and geochemical phenomenon associated with them. Volcanology also plays a vital role in saving lives through predicting the eruptions of volcanoes. Some of the equipment involved in observing volcanoes are seismographs, portable ultra-violet spectrometers and thermometers. Seismographs are placed near volcanoes to detect increased seismic activity, especially long period harmonic tremors. Ultra-violet spectrometers help in monitoring emissions of volcanic gases such as sulfur dioxide. Changes in thermal properties of volcanic vents and lakes are measured using thermometers. This book is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex advancements in the field of volcanology. Those with an interest in this field would find this book helpful. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and post graduate students.

The field of study, which deals with features, lands, inhabitants and phenomena of the Earth and planets is known as geography. It seeks to understand the Earth, along with the natural and human complexities. The two broad divisions of geography are human geography and physical geography. The people and their communities, as well as their cultures and interactions with the environment are studied within human geography. The different processes and patterns in the natural environment such as the hydrosphere, biosphere, geosphere and atmosphere are studied within physical geography. Some of the tools used within this field of study are cartography, geographic information systems and remote sensing. This book provides significant information of this discipline to help develop a good understanding of geography and related fields. It includes contributions of experts and scientists which will provide innovative insights into this field. The book aims to serve as a resource guide for students and experts alike and contribute to the growth of the discipline.

The branch of traditional medicine which is based on ancient Chinese medical practices is known as Traditional Chinese Medicine or TCM. There are various forms of medicine which are considered to be a part of TCM such as cupping therapy, bonesetter, gua sha, acupuncture and herbal medicine. The primary belief of TCM is that the body's vital energy, which is also called chi, circulates through channels, which are called meridians. The functions of the body such as breathing and digestion are the primary focus of this branch of medicine, instead of the anatomical structures. This book provides significant information of this discipline to help develop a good understanding of Traditional Chinese medicine and related fields. Some of the diverse topics covered in it address the varied branches that fall under this category. This book is appropriate for students seeking detailed information in this area as well as for experts.

Biology is a branch of natural science which deals with the study of life and living organisms. It focuses on their physical structure, molecular interactions, physiological mechanisms, chemical processes, development and evolution. It considers cells as the fundamental unit of life and genes as the basic unit of heredity. It also perceives evolution as the force that is responsible for the creation and extinction of species. There are a number of sub-disciplines within biology such as theoretical biology and experimental biology. Theoretical biology uses mathematical methods for the formulation of quantitative models. Experimental biology conducts empirical experiments for testing the validity of proposed theories and understanding the mechanisms underlying life. This textbook is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex theories and principles in the field of biology. Some of the diverse topics covered herein address the varied branches that fall under this category. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.

The branch of astronomy, which deals with the origin and evolution of the universe is known as cosmology. There are three major divisions within cosmology, namely, physical cosmology, religious cosmology and philosophical cosmology. Physical cosmology focuses on the physical origins along with the evolution of the universe. The basis for religious cosmology is a body of different mythological, religious and esoteric literature. Philosophical cosmology is dedicated to the philosophical contemplation of the universe as a totality. Since the scope of cosmology extends to disciplines outside of science, theories in cosmology can be either scientific or non-scientific in nature. This book attempts to understand the multiple branches that fall under the discipline of cosmology and how such concepts have practical applications. The topics included in this book on cosmology are of utmost significance and bound to provide incredible insights to readers. It will serve as a valuable source of reference for graduate and postgraduate students.

Computational biology is a field that deals with the development and application of data-analytical and theoretical methods for studying various behavioral, ecological, biological and social systems. It also uses mathematical modeling and computational simulation techniques. It is closely related to the field of bioinformatics where computers are used for storing and processing biological data. Computational biology is an interdisciplinary field that applies concepts from biology, mathematics, biochemistry, chemistry, biophysics, molecular biology and computer science. There are various sub-fields of computational biology such as computational anatomy, computational biomodeling, computational genetics, computational neuroscience, pharmacology, evolutionary biology and computational neuropsychiatry. This textbook provides significant information of this discipline to help develop a good understanding of computational biology and related fields. It is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex theories and principles in this field. This book is an essential guide for both academicians and those who wish to pursue this discipline further.

The study of parasites, their hosts and the relationship between them is known as parasitology. It is a biological field that encompasses principles from diverse disciplines such as cell biology, biochemistry, bioinformatics, immunology, evolution, genetics, molecular biology and ecology. Parasitology is sub-divided into various fields. Some of these are medical parasitology, veterinary parasitology, structural parasitology, conservation biology of parasites and parasite ecology. Medical parasitology deals with the parasites that affect humans and the diseases which are caused by them. The study of parasites that infect companion animals and cause economic losses in agriculture is known as veterinary parasitology. Structural parasitology refers to the study of structures of proteins from parasites. This book provides comprehensive insights into the field of parasitology. Some of the diverse topics covered herein address the varied branches that fall under this category. This book will serve as a valuable source of reference for those interested in this field.

The branch of biology which deals with the study of genetic variation, genes and heredity in organisms is known as genetics. The primary principles of genetics are trait inheritance and molecular inheritance mechanisms of genes. It is also involved in the study of the function and behavior of genes. Genetics studies the gene structure, function, variation and distribution in various contexts such as the cell, organism and population. Some of the major sub-fields within this discipline are epigenetics and population genetics. It examines the genetic processes that work with an organism's environment and experiences in order to influence its development and behavior. This textbook presents the complex subject of genetics in the most comprehensible and easy to understand language. It is a valuable compilation of topics, ranging from the basic to the most complex theories and principles in this field. For all those who are interested in genetics, this book can prove to be an essential guide.

The field of bioinformatics is concerned with the development of methods and software tools used to understand biological data. It is an interdisciplinary field that encompasses techniques and concepts from biology, computer science, statistics, mathematics and information engineering for analyzing and interpreting biological data. Some of the applications of this field are identifying genes and single nucleotide polymorphisms. This helps in understanding the genetic basis of diseases, unique adaptations and differences between populations. It also tries to understand the principles of protein sequences. Some of the major areas of interest within this field are sequence analysis, gene and protein expression and cellular organization. This book elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to bioinformatics. Some of the diverse topics covered in this book address the varied aspects of this field. It is appropriate for those seeking detailed information in bioinformatics.

A plant which is considered to be undesirable in a particular location is termed as a weed. Weed control attempts to stop weeds from competing for resources with desired flora and fauna such as domesticated plants and livestock. There are various methods for managing weeds such as physical methods, chemical methods and biological methods. The physical methods are hand cultivation with hoes, lethal wilting with high heat and powered cultivation with cultivators. Chemical methods primarily involve the use of herbicides. There are also biological methods which employ techniques like the protection of natural predators and use of grazing animals. This textbook elucidates the concepts and innovative models around prospective developments with respect to weed control. Most of the topics introduced herein cover new techniques and the applications in this area. Those in search of information to further their knowledge will be greatly assisted by this book.