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Pseudo-Riemannian geometry is, to a large extent, the study of the Levi-Civita connection, which is the unique torsion-free connection compatible with the metric structure. There are, however, other affine connections which arise in different contexts, such as conformal geometry, contact structures, Weyl structures, and almost Hermitian geometry. In this book, we reverse this point of view and instead associate an auxiliary pseudo-Riemannian structure of neutral signature to certain affine connections and use this correspondence to study both geometries. We examine Walker structures, Riemannian extensions, and Kahler--Weyl geometry from this viewpoint. This book is intended to be accessible to mathematicians who are not expert in the subject and to students with a basic grounding in differential geometry. Consequently, the first chapter contains a comprehensive introduction to the basic results and definitions we shall need---proofs are included of many of these results to make it as self-contained as possible. Para-complex geometry plays an important role throughout the book and consequently is treated carefully in various chapters, as is the representation theory underlying various results. It is a feature of this book that, rather than as regarding para-complex geometry as an adjunct to complex geometry, instead, we shall often introduce the para-complex concepts first and only later pass to the complex setting. The second and third chapters are devoted to the study of various kinds of Riemannian extensions that associate to an affine structure on a manifold a corresponding metric of neutral signature on its cotangent bundle. These play a role in various questions involving the spectral geometry of the curvature operator and homogeneous connections on surfaces. The fourth chapter deals with Kahler--Weyl geometry, which lies, in a certain sense, midway between affine geometry and Kahler geometry. Another feature of the book is that we have tried wherever possible to find the original references in the subject for possible historical interest. Thus, we have cited the seminal papers of Levi-Civita, Ricci, Schouten, and Weyl, to name but a few exemplars. We have also given different proofs of various results than those that are given in the literature, to take advantage of the unified treatment of the area given herein.

The main result of this book is a proof of the contradictory nature of the Navier¿Stokes problem (NSP). It is proved that the NSP is physically wrong, and the solution to the NSP does not exist on ¿+ (except for the case when the initial velocity and the exterior force are both equal to zero; in this case, the solution ¿¿¿¿(¿¿¿¿, ¿¿¿¿) to the NSP exists for all ¿¿¿¿ ¿ 0 and ¿¿¿¿(¿¿¿¿, ¿¿¿¿) = 0). It is shown that if the initial data ¿¿¿¿0(¿¿¿¿) ¿ 0, ¿¿¿¿(¿¿¿¿,¿¿¿¿) = 0 and the solution to the NSP exists for all ¿¿¿¿ ¿ ¿+, then ¿¿¿¿0(¿¿¿¿) := ¿¿¿¿(¿¿¿¿, 0) = 0. This Paradox proves that the NSP is physically incorrect and mathematically unsolvable, in general. Uniqueness of the solution to the NSP in the space ¿¿¿¿21(¿3) × C(¿+) is proved, ¿¿¿¿21(¿3) is the Sobolev space, ¿+ = [0, ¿). Theory of integral equations and inequalities with hyper-singular kernels is developed. The NSP is reduced to an integral inequality with a hyper-singular kernel.

The mere mention of hyperbolic geometry is enough to strike fear in the heart of the undergraduate mathematics and physics student. Some regard themselves as excluded from the profound insights of hyperbolic geometry so that this enormous portion of human achievement is a closed door to them. The mission of this book is to open that door by making the hyperbolic geometry of Bolyai and Lobachevsky, as well as the special relativity theory of Einstein that it regulates, accessible to a wider audience in terms of novel analogies that the modern and unknown share with the classical and familiar. These novel analogies that this book captures stem from Thomas gyration, which is the mathematical abstraction of the relativistic effect known as Thomas precession. Remarkably, the mere introduction of Thomas gyration turns Euclidean geometry into hyperbolic geometry, and reveals mystique analogies that the two geometries share. Accordingly, Thomas gyration gives rise to the prefix "gyro" that isextensively used in the gyrolanguage of this book, giving rise to terms like gyrocommutative and gyroassociative binary operations in gyrogroups, and gyrovectors in gyrovector spaces. Of particular importance is the introduction of gyrovectors into hyperbolic geometry, where they are equivalence classes that add according to the gyroparallelogram law in full analogy with vectors, which are equivalence classes that add according to the parallelogram law. A gyroparallelogram, in turn, is a gyroquadrilateral the two gyrodiagonals of which intersect at their gyromidpoints in full analogy with a parallelogram, which is a quadrilateral the two diagonals of which intersect at their midpoints. Table of Contents: Gyrogroups / Gyrocommutative Gyrogroups / Gyrovector Spaces / Gyrotrigonometry

This book treats all of the most commonly used theories of the integral. After motivating the idea of integral, we devote a full chapter to the Riemann integral and the next to the Lebesgue integral. Another chapter compares and contrasts the two theories. The concluding chapter offers brief introductions to the Henstock integral, the Daniell integral, the Stieltjes integral, and other commonly used integrals. The purpose of this book is to provide a quick but accurate (and detailed) introduction to all aspects of modern integration theory. It should be accessible to any student who has had calculus and some exposure to upper division mathematics. Table of Contents: Introduction / The Riemann Integral / The Lebesgue Integral / Comparison of the Riemann and Lebesgue Integrals / Other Theories of the Integral

One of the most important subjects for all engineers and scientists is probability and statistics. This book presents the basics of the essential topics in probability and statistics from a rigorous standpoint. The basics of probability underlying all statistics is presented first and then we cover the essential topics in statistics, confidence intervals, hypothesis testing, and linear regression. This book is suitable for any engineer or scientist who is comfortable with calculus and is meant to be covered in a one-semester format.

The text is designed for use in a forty-lecture introductory course covering linear algebra, multivariable differential calculus, and an introduction to real analysis. The core material of the book is arranged to allow for the main introductory material on linear algebra, including basic vector space theory in Euclidean space and the initial theory of matrices and linear systems, to be covered in the first ten or eleven lectures, followed by a similar number of lectures on basic multivariable analysis, including first theorems on differentiable functions on domains in Euclidean space and a brief introduction to submanifolds. The book then concludes with further essential linear algebra, including the theory of determinants, eigenvalues, and the spectral theorem for real symmetric matrices, and further multivariable analysis, including the contraction mapping principle and the inverse and implicit function theorems. There is also an appendix which provides a nine-lecture introduction toreal analysis. There are various ways in which the additional material in the appendix could be integrated into a course--for example in the Stanford Mathematics honors program, run as a four-lecture per week program in the Autumn Quarter each year, the first six lectures of the nine-lecture appendix are presented at the rate of one lecture per week in weeks two through seven of the quarter, with the remaining three lectures per week during those weeks being devoted to the main chapters of the text. It is hoped that the text would be suitable for a quarter or semester course for students who have scored well in the BC Calculus advanced placement examination (or equivalent), particularly those who are considering a possible major in mathematics. The author has attempted to make the presentation rigorous and complete, with the clarity and simplicity needed to make it accessible to an appropriately large group of students. Table of Contents: Linear Algebra / Analysis in R / More Linear Algebra / More Analysis in R / Appendix: Introductory Lectures on Real Analysis

This book assumes the students know some of the basic facts about Calculus. We are very rigorous and expose them to the proofs and the ideas which produce them. In three chapters, this book covers these number systems and the material usually found in a junior-senior advanced Calculus course. It is designed to be a one-semester course for "talented" freshmen. Moreover, it presents a way of thinking about mathematics that will make it much easier to learn more of this subject and be a good preparation for more of the undergraduate curriculum.

This book, which focuses on the study of curvature, is an introduction to various aspects of pseudo-Riemannian geometry. We shall use Walker manifolds (pseudo-Riemannian manifolds which admit a non-trivial parallel null plane field) to exemplify some of the main differences between the geometry of Riemannian manifolds and the geometry of pseudo-Riemannian manifolds and thereby illustrate phenomena in pseudo-Riemannian geometry that are quite different from those which occur in Riemannian geometry, i.e. for indefinite as opposed to positive definite metrics. Indefinite metrics are important in many diverse physical contexts: classical cosmological models (general relativity) and string theory to name but two. Walker manifolds appear naturally in numerous physical settings and provide examples of extremal mathematical situations as will be discussed presently. To describe the geometry of a pseudo-Riemannian manifold, one must first understand the curvature of the manifold. We shall analyze a wide variety of curvature properties and we shall derive both geometrical and topological results. Special attention will be paid to manifolds of dimension 3 as these are quite tractable. We then pass to the 4 dimensional setting as a gateway to higher dimensions. Since the book is aimed at a very general audience (and in particular to an advanced undergraduate or to a beginning graduate student), no more than a basic course in differential geometry is required in the way of background. To keep our treatment as self-contained as possible, we shall begin with two elementary chapters that provide an introduction to basic aspects of pseudo-Riemannian geometry before beginning on our study of Walker geometry. An extensive bibliography is provided for further reading. Math subject classifications : Primary: 53B20 -- (PACS: 02.40.Hw) Secondary: 32Q15, 51F25, 51P05, 53B30, 53C50, 53C80, 58A30, 83F05, 85A04 Table of Contents: Basic Algebraic Notions / Basic Geometrical Notions / Walker Structures / Three-Dimensional Lorentzian Walker Manifolds / Four-Dimensional Walker Manifolds / The Spectral Geometry of the Curvature Tensor / Hermitian Geometry / Special Walker Manifolds

This text is intended as an introduction to mathematical proofs for students. It is distilled from the lecture notes for a course focused on set theory subject matter as a means of teaching proofs. Chapter 1 contains an introduction and provides a brief summary of some background material students may be unfamiliar with. Chapters 2 and 3 introduce the basics of logic for students not yet familiar with these topics. Included is material on Boolean logic, propositions and predicates, logical operations, truth tables, tautologies and contradictions, rules of inference and logical arguments. Chapter 4 introduces mathematical proofs, including proof conventions, direct proofs, proof-by-contradiction, and proof-by-contraposition. Chapter 5 introduces the basics of naive set theory, including Venn diagrams and operations on sets. Chapter 6 introduces mathematical induction and recurrence relations. Chapter 7 introduces set-theoretic functions and covers injective, surjective, and bijective functions, as well as permutations. Chapter 8 covers the fundamental properties of the integers including primes, unique factorization, and Euclid's algorithm. Chapter 9 is an introduction to combinatorics; topics included are combinatorial proofs, binomial and multinomial coefficients, the Inclusion-Exclusion principle, and counting the number of surjective functions between finite sets. Chapter 10 introduces relations and covers equivalence relations and partial orders. Chapter 11 covers number bases, number systems, and operations. Chapter 12 covers cardinality, including basic results on countable and uncountable infinities, and introduces cardinal numbers. Chapter 13 expands on partial orders and introduces ordinal numbers. Chapter 14 examines the paradoxes of naive set theory and introduces and discusses axiomatic set theory. This chapter also includes Cantor's Paradox, Russel's Paradox, a discussion of axiomatic theories, an exposition on ZermelöFraenkel Set Theory with the Axiom of Choice, and a brief explanation of Gödel's Incompleteness Theorems.

This is a short book on the fundamental concepts of the no-arbitrage theory of pricing financial derivatives. Its scope is limited to the general discrete setting of models for which the set of possible states is finite and so is the set of possible trading times--this includes the popular binomial tree model. This setting has the advantage of being fairly general while not requiring a sophisticated understanding of analysis at the graduate level. Topics include understanding the several variants of "e;arbitrage"e;, the fundamental theorems of asset pricing in terms of martingale measures, and applications to forwards and futures. The authors' motivation is to present the material in a way that clarifies as much as possible why the often confusing basic facts are true. Therefore the ideas are organized from a mathematical point of view with the emphasis on understanding exactly what is under the hood and how it works. Every effort is made to include complete explanations and proofs, and the reader is encouraged to work through the exercises throughout the book. The intended audience is students and other readers who have an undergraduate background in mathematics, including exposure to linear algebra, some advanced calculus, and basic probability. The book has been used in earlier forms with students in the MS program in Financial Mathematics at Florida State University, and is a suitable text for students at that level. Students who seek a second look at these topics may also find this book useful. Table of Contents: Overture: Single-Period Models / The General Discrete Model / The Fundamental Theorems of Asset Pricing / Forwards and Futures / Incomplete Markets

Statistics is the activity of inferring results about a population given a sample. Historically, statistics books assume an underlying distribution to the data (typically, the normal distribution) and derive results under that assumption. Unfortunately, in real life, one cannot normally be sure of the underlying distribution. For that reason, this book presents a distribution-independent approach to statistics based on a simple computational counting idea called resampling. This book explains the basic concepts of resampling, then system atically presents the standard statistical measures along with programs (in the language Python) to calculate them using resampling, and finally illustrates the use of the measures and programs in a case study. The text uses junior high school algebra and many examples to explain the concepts. Th e ideal reader has mastered at least elementary mathematics, likes to think procedurally, and is comfortable with computers. Table of Contents: The Basic Idea / Pragmatic Considerations when Using Resampling / Terminology / The Essential Stats / Case Study: New Mexico's 2004 Presidential Ballots / References / Bias Corrected Confidence Intervals / Appendix B

This book is intended as an undergraduate text introducing matrix methods as they relate to engineering problems. It begins with the fundamentals of mathematics of matrices and determinants. Matrix inversion is discussed, with an introduction of the well known reduction methods. Equation sets are viewed as vector transformations, and the conditions of their solvability are explored. Orthogonal matrices are introduced with examples showing application to many problems requiring three dimensional thinking. The angular velocity matrix is shown to emerge from the differentiation of the 3-D orthogonal matrix, leading to the discussion of particle and rigid body dynamics. The book continues with the eigenvalue problem and its application to multi-variable vibrations. Because the eigenvalue problem requires some operations with polynomials, a separate discussion of these is given in an appendix. The example of the vibrating string is given with a comparison of the matrix analysis to the continuous solution. Table of Contents: Matrix Fundamentals / Determinants / Matrix Inversion / Linear Simultaneous Equation Sets / Orthogonal Transforms / Matrix Eigenvalue Analysis / Matrix Analysis of Vibrating Systems

This book consists of lecture notes for a semester-long introductory graduate course on dynamical systems and chaos taught by the authors at Texas A&M University and Zhongshan University, China. There are ten chapters in the main body of the book, covering an elementary theory of chaotic maps in finite-dimensional spaces. The topics include one-dimensional dynamical systems (interval maps), bifurcations, general topological, symbolic dynamical systems, fractals and a class of infinite-dimensional dynamical systems which are induced by interval maps, plus rapid fluctuations of chaotic maps as a new viewpoint developed by the authors in recent years. Two appendices are also provided in order to ease the transitions for the readership from discrete-time dynamical systems to continuous-time dynamical systems, governed by ordinary and partial differential equations. Table of Contents: Simple Interval Maps and Their Iterations / Total Variations of Iterates of Maps / Ordering among Periods: The Sharkovski Theorem / Bifurcation Theorems for Maps / Homoclinicity. Lyapunoff Exponents / Symbolic Dynamics, Conjugacy and Shift Invariant Sets / The Smale Horseshoe / Fractals / Rapid Fluctuations of Chaotic Maps on RN / Infinite-dimensional Systems Induced by Continuous-Time Difference Equations

The Second Edition of this popular book on practical mathematics for engineers includes new and expanded chapters on perturbation methods and theory. This is a book about linear partial differential equations that are common in engineering and the physical sciences. It will be useful to graduate students and advanced undergraduates in all engineering fields as well as students of physics, chemistry, geophysics and other physical sciences and professional engineers who wish to learn about how advanced mathematics can be used in their professions. The reader will learn about applications to heat transfer, fluid flow and mechanical vibrations. The book is written in such a way that solution methods and application to physical problems are emphasized. There are many examples presented in detail and fully explained in their relation to the real world. References to suggested further reading are included. The topics that are covered include classical separation of variables and orthogonal functions, Laplace transforms, complex variables and Sturm-Liouville transforms. This second edition includes two new and revised chapters on perturbation methods, and singular perturbation theory of differential equations. Table of Contents: Partial Differential Equations in Engineering / The Fourier Method: Separation of Variables / Orthogonal Sets of Functions / Series Solutions of Ordinary Differential Equations / Solutions Using Fourier Series and Integrals / Integral Transforms: The Laplace Transform / Complex Variables and the Laplace Inversion Integral / Solutions with Laplace Transforms / Sturm-Liouville Transforms / Introduction to Perturbation Methods / Singular Perturbation Theory of Differential Equations / Appendix A: The Roots of Certain Transcendental Equations

Differential Geometry is a wide field. We have chosen to concentrate upon certain aspects that are appropriate for an introduction to the subject; we have not attempted an encyclopedic treatment. In Book I, we focus on preliminaries. Chapter 1 provides an introduction to multivariable calculus and treats the Inverse Function Theorem, Implicit Function Theorem, the theory of the Riemann Integral, and the Change of Variable Theorem. Chapter 2 treats smooth manifolds, the tangent and cotangent bundles, and Stokes' Theorem. Chapter 3 is an introduction to Riemannian geometry. The Levi-Civita connection is presented, geodesics introduced, the Jacobi operator is discussed, and the Gauss-Bonnet Theorem is proved. The material is appropriate for an undergraduate course in the subject. We have given some different proofs than those that are classically given and there is some new material in these volumes. For example, the treatment of the Chern-Gauss-Bonnet Theorem for pseudo-Riemannian manifolds with boundary is new. Table of Contents: Preface / Acknowledgments / Basic Notions and Concepts / Manifolds / Riemannian and Pseudo-Riemannian Geometry / Bibliography / Authors' Biographies / Index

Differential Geometry is a wide field. We have chosen to concentrate upon certain aspects that are appropriate for an introduction to the subject; we have not attempted an encyclopedic treatment. Book II deals with more advanced material than Book I and is aimed at the graduate level. Chapter 4 deals with additional topics in Riemannian geometry. Properties of real analytic curves given by a single ODE and of surfaces given by a pair of ODEs are studied, and the volume of geodesic balls is treated. An introduction to both holomorphic and Khler geometry is given. In Chapter 5, the basic properties of de Rham cohomology are discussed, the Hodge Decomposition Theorem, Poincar duality, and the Knneth formula are proved, and a brief introduction to the theory of characteristic classes is given. In Chapter 6, Lie groups and Lie algebras are dealt with. The exponential map, the classical groups, and geodesics in the context of a bi-invariant metric are discussed. The de Rham cohomology of compact Lie groups and the Peter--Weyl Theorem are treated. In Chapter 7, material concerning homogeneous spaces and symmetric spaces is presented. Book II concludes in Chapter 8 where the relationship between simplicial cohomology, singular cohomology, sheaf cohomology, and de Rham cohomology is established. We have given some different proofs than those that are classically given and there is some new material in these volumes. For example, the treatment of the total curvature and length of curves given by a single ODE is new as is the discussion of the total Gaussian curvature of a surface defined by a pair of ODEs.

Differential Geometry is a wide field. We have chosen to concentrate upon certain aspects that are appropriate for an introduction to the subject; we have not attempted an encyclopedic treatment. Book III is aimed at the first-year graduate level but is certainly accessible to advanced undergraduates. It deals with invariance theory and discusses invariants both of Weyl and not of Weyl type; the ChernGaussBonnet formula is treated from this point of view. Homothety homogeneity, local homogeneity, stability theorems, and Walker geometry are discussed. Ricci solitons are presented in the contexts of Riemannian, Lorentzian, and affine geometry.

lt;p>Atherosclerosis is a pathological condition of the arteries in which plaque buildup and stiffening (hardening) can lead to stroke, myocardial infarction (heart attacks), and even death. Cholesterol in the blood is a key marker for atherosclerosis, with two forms: (1) LDL - low density lipoproteins and (2) HDL - high density lipoproteins. Low LDL and high HDL concentrations are generally considered essential for limited atherosclerosis and good health.</p><div><p>This book pertains to a mathematical model for the spatiotemporal distribution of LDL and HDL in the arterial endothelial inner layer (EIL, intima). The model consists of a system of six partial differential equations (PDEs) with the dependent variables</p></div><div><p>1. ,,,,(,,,,,,,,,): concentration of modified LDL</p></div><div><p>2. ,,,,,,,): concentration of HDL</p></div><div><p>3. ,,,,(,,,,,,,,,): concentration of chemoattractants</p></div><div><p>4. ,,,,(,,,,,,,,,): concentration of ES cytokines</p></div><div><p>5. ,,,,(,,,,,,,,,): density of monocytes/macrophages</p></div><div><p>6. ,,,,(,,,,,,,,,): density of foam cells</p></div><div><p>and independent variables</p></div><div><p>1. ,,,,: distance from the inner arterial wall</p></div><div><p>2. ,,,,: time</p></div><div><p>The focus of this book is a discussion of the methodology for placing the model on modest computers for study of the numerical solutions. The foam cell density ,,,,(,,,,,,,,,) as a function of the bloodstream LDL and HDL concentrations is of particular interest as a precursor for arterial plaque formation and stiffening.</p></div><p>The numerical algorithm for the solution of the model PDEs is the method of lines (MOL), a general procedure for the computer-based numerical solution of PDEs. The MOL coding (programming) is in R, a quality, open-source scientific computing system that is readily available from the Internet. The R routines for the PDE model are discussed in detail, and are available from a download link so that the reader/analyst/researcher can execute the model to duplicate the solutions reported in the book, then experiment with the model, for example, by changing the parameters (constants) and extending the model with additional equations.</p></div>

This book gives a necessary and sufficient condition in terms of the scattering amplitude for a scatterer to be spherically symmetric. By a scatterer we mean a potential or an obstacle. It also gives necessary and sufficient conditions for a domain to be a ball if an overdetermined boundary problem for the Helmholtz equation in this domain is solvable. This includes a proof of Schiffer's conjecture, the solution to the Pompeiu problem, and other symmetry problems for partial differential equations. It goes on to study some other symmetry problems related to the potential theory. Among these is the problem of "e;invisible obstacles."e; In Chapter 5, it provides a solution to the Navier‒Stokes problem in ℝ³. The author proves that this problem has a unique global solution if the data are smooth and decaying sufficiently fast. A new a priori estimate of the solution to the Navier‒Stokes problem is also included. Finally, it delivers a solution to inverse problem of the potential theory without the standard assumptions about star-shapeness of the homogeneous bodies.

Book IV continues the discussion begun in the first three volumes. Although it is aimed at first-year graduate students, it is also intended to serve as a basic reference for people working in affine differential geometry. It also should be accessible to undergraduates interested in affine differential geometry. We are primarily concerned with the study of affine surfaces {which} are locally homogeneous. We discuss affine gradient Ricci solitons, affine Killing vector fields, and geodesic completeness. Opozda has classified the affine surface geometries which are locally homogeneous; we follow her classification. Up to isomorphism, there are two simply connected Lie groups of dimension 2. The translation group is Abelian and the ,,,,,,,, + ,,,, group\index{ax+b group} is non-Abelian. The first chapter presents foundational material. The second chapter deals with Type ,,,, surfaces. These are the left-invariant affine geometries on . Associating to each Type ,,,, surface the space of solutions to the quasi-Einstein equation corresponding to the eigenvalue ,,,,=-1$ turns out to be a very powerful technique and plays a central role in our study as it links an analytic invariant with the underlying geometry of the surface. The third chapter deals with Type ,,,, surfaces; these are the left-invariant affine geometries on the ,,,,,,,, + ,,,, group. These geometries form a very rich family which is only partially understood. The only remaining homogeneous geometry is that of the sphere ,,,,2. The fourth chapter presents relations between the geometry of an affine surface and the geometry of the cotangent bundle equipped with the neutral signature metric of the modified Riemannian extension.

This is an introduction to methods for solving nonlinear partial differential equations (NLPDEs). After the introduction of several PDEs drawn from science and engineering, the reader is introduced to techniques used to obtain exact solutions of NPDEs. The chapters include the following topics: Compatibility, Differential Substitutions, Point and Contact Transformations, First Integrals, and Functional Separability. The reader is guided through these chapters and is provided with several detailed examples. Each chapter ends with a series of exercises illustrating the material presented in each chapter.The book can be used as a textbook for a second course in PDEs (typically found in both science and engineering programs) and has been used at the University of Central Arkansas for more than ten years.

The inverse obstacle scattering problem consists of finding the unknown surface of a body (obstacle) from the scattering ,,,,(,,,,;,,,,;,,,,), where ,,,,(,,,,;,,,,;,,,,) is the scattering amplitude, ,,,,;,,,, ,,,, ,,,,2 is the direction of the scattered, incident wave, respectively, ,,,,2 is the unit sphere in the and k > 0 is the modulus of the wave vector. The scattering data is called non-over-determined if its dimensionality is the same as the one of the unknown object. By the dimensionality one understands the minimal number of variables of a function describing the data or an object. In an inverse obstacle scattering problem this number is 2, and an example of non-over-determined data is ,,,,(,,,,) := ,,,,(,,,,;,,,,,, By sub-index 0 a fixed value of a variable is denoted.</p>It is proved in this book that the data ,,,,(,,,,), known for all ,,,, in an open subset of ,,,, determines uniquely the surface ,,,, and the boundary condition on ,,,,. This condition can be the Dirichlet, or the Neumann, or the impedance type.</p>The above uniqueness theorem is of principal importance because the non-over-determined data are the minimal data determining uniquely the unknown ,,,,. There were no such results in the literature, therefore the need for this book arose. This book contains a self-contained proof of the existence and uniqueness of the scattering solution for rough surfaces.</p>

Introduction to Statistics Using R is organized into 13 major chapters. Each chapter is broken down into many digestible subsections in order to explore the objectives of the book. There are many real-life practical examples in this book and each of the examples is written in R codes to acquaint the readers with some statistical methods while simultaneously learning R scripts.

This book reviews the algebraic prerequisites of calculus, including solving equations, lines, quadratics, functions, logarithms, and trig functions. It introduces the derivative using the limit-based definition and covers the standard function library and the product, quotient, and chain rules. It explores the applications of the derivative to curve sketching and optimization and concludes with the formal definition of the limit, the squeeze theorem, and the mean value theorem.

This book introduces integrals, the fundamental theorem of calculus, initial value problems, and Riemann sums. It introduces properties of polynomials, including roots and multiplicity, and uses them as a framework for introducing additional calculus concepts including Newton's method, L'Hopital's Rule, and Rolle's theorem. Both the differential and integral calculus of parametric, polar, and vector functions are introduced. The book concludes with a survey of methods of integration, including u-substitution, integration by parts, special trigonometric integrals, trigonometric substitution, and partial fractions.

This book continues the material in two early Fast Start calculus volumes to include multivariate calculus, sequences and series, and a variety of additional applications. These include partial derivatives and the optimization techniques that arise from them, including Lagrange multipliers. Volumes of rotation, arc length, and surface area are included in the additional applications of integration. Using multiple integrals, including computing volume and center of mass, is covered. The book concludes with an initial treatment of sequences, series, power series, and Taylor's series, including techniques of function approximation.

The subject of fractional calculus has gained considerable popularity and importance during the past three decades, mainly due to its validated applications in various fields of science and engineering. It is a generalization of ordinary differentiation and integration to arbitrary (non-integer) order. The fractional derivative has been used in various physical problems, such as frequency-dependent damping behavior of structures, biological systems, motion of a plate in a Newtonian fluid, ,,,,,,,,I ,,,,? controller for the control of dynamical systems, and so on. It is challenging to obtain the solution (both analytical and numerical) of related nonlinear partial differential equations of fractional order. So for the last few decades, a great deal of attention has been directed towards the solution for these kind of problems. Different methods have been developed by other researchers to analyze the above problems with respect to crisp (exact) parameters.However, in real-life applications such as for biological problems, it is not always possible to get exact values of the associated parameters due to errors in measurements/experiments, observations, and many other errors. Therefore, the associated parameters and variables may be considered uncertain. Here, the uncertainties are considered interval/fuzzy. Therefore, the development of appropriate efficient methods and their use in solving the mentioned uncertain problems are the recent challenge.In view of the above, this book is a new attempt to rigorously present a variety of fuzzy (and interval) time-fractional dynamical models with respect to different biological systems using computationally efficient method. The authors believe this book will be helpful to undergraduates, graduates, researchers, industry, faculties, and others throughout the globe.